Inhibition of Polo kinase by BI2536 affects centriole separation during Drosophila male meiosis

Microtubule and Actin Cytoskeletal Dynamics in Male Meiotic Cells of Drosophila melanogaster

Drosophila dividing spermatocytes offer a highly suitable cell system in which to investigate the coordinated reorganization of microtubule and actin cytoskeleton systems during cell division of animal cells. Like male germ cells of mammals, Drosophila spermatogonia and spermatocytes undergo cleavage furrow ingression during cytokinesis, but abscission does not take place. Thus, clusters of primary and secondary spermatocytes undergo meiotic divisions in synchrony, resulting in cysts of 32 secondary spermatocytes and then 64 spermatids connected by specialized structures called ring canals. The meiotic spindles in Drosophila males are substantially larger than the spindles of mammalian somatic cells and exhibit prominent central spindles and contractile rings during cytokinesis. These characteristics make male meiotic cells particularly amenable to immunofluorescence and live imaging analysis of the spindle microtubules and the actomyosin apparatus during meiotic divisions. Moreover, because the spindle assembly checkpoint is not robust in spermatocytes, Drosophila male meiosis allows investigating of whether gene products required for chromosome segregation play additional roles during cytokinesis. Here, we will review how the research studies on Drosophila male meiotic cells have contributed to our knowledge of the conserved molecular pathways that regulate spindle microtubules and cytokinesis with important implications for the comprehension of cancer and other diseases.

Ana1 helps recruit Polo to centrioles to promote mitotic PCM assembly and centriole elongation

Polo kinase (PLK1 in mammals) is a master cell cycle regulator that is recruited to various subcellular structures, often by its polo-box domain (PBD), which binds to phosphorylated S-pS/pT motifs. Polo/PLK1 kinases have multiple functions at centrioles and centrosomes, and we have previously shown that in Drosophila phosphorylated Sas-4 initiates Polo recruitment to newly formed centrioles, while phosphorylated Spd-2 recruits Polo to the pericentriolar material (PCM) that assembles around mother centrioles in mitosis. Here, we show that Ana1 (Cep295 in humans) also helps to recruit Polo to mother centrioles in Drosophila. If Ana1-dependent Polo recruitment is impaired, mother centrioles can still duplicate, disengage from their daughters and form functional cilia, but they can no longer efficiently assemble mitotic PCM or elongate during G2. We conclude that Ana1 helps recruit Polo to mother centrioles to specifically promote mitotic centrosome assembly and centriole elongation in G2, but not centriole duplication, centriole disengagement or cilia assembly. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

The Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1 complex mediates the robust recruitment of Polo to DNA lesions during mitosis in Drosophila

The DNA damage sensor Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1 complex and Polo kinase are recruited to DNA lesions during mitosis. However, their mechanism of recruitment is elusive. Here, using live-cell imaging combined with micro-irradiation of single chromosomes, we analyze the dynamics of Polo and Mre11 at DNA lesions during mitosis in Drosophila These two proteins display distinct kinetics. Whereas Polo kinetics at double-strand breaks (DSBs) are Cdk1-driven, Mre11 promptly but briefly associates with DSBs regardless of the phase of mitosis and re-associates with DSBs in the proceeding interphase. Mechanistically, Polo kinase activity is required for its own recruitment and that of the mitotic proteins BubR1 and Bub3 to DSBs. Moreover, depletion of Rad50 severely impaired Polo kinetics at mitotic DSBs. Conversely, ectopic tethering of Mre11 to chromatin was sufficient to recruit Polo. Our study highlights a novel pathway that links the DSB sensor Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1 complex and Polo kinase to initiate a prompt, decisive response to the presence of DNA damage during mitosis.

Centrioles and Ciliary Structures during Male Gametogenesis in Hexapoda: Discovery of New Models

Centrioles are-widely conserved barrel-shaped organelles present in most organisms. They are indirectly involved in the organization of the cytoplasmic microtubules both in interphase and during the cell division by recruiting the molecules needed for microtubule nucleation. Moreover, the centrioles are required to assemble cilia and flagella by the direct elongation of their microtubule wall. Due to the importance of the cytoplasmic microtubules in several aspects of the cell life, any defect in centriole structure can lead to cell abnormalities that in humans may result in significant diseases. Many aspects of the centriole dynamics and function have been clarified in the last years, but little attention has been paid to the exceptions in centriole structure that occasionally appeared within the animal kingdom. Here, we focused our attention on non-canonical aspects of centriole architecture within the Hexapoda. The Hexapoda is one of the major animal groups and represents a good laboratory in which to examine the evolution and the organization of the centrioles. Although these findings represent obvious exceptions to the established rules of centriole organization, they may contribute to advance our understanding of the formation and the function of these organelles.

The Drosophila Citrate Lyase Is Required for Cell Division during Spermatogenesis

The Drosophila melanogasterDmATPCL gene encodes for the human ATP Citrate Lyase (ACL) ortholog, a metabolic enzyme that from citrate generates glucose-derived Acetyl-CoA, which fuels central biochemical reactions such as the synthesis of fatty acids, cholesterol and acetylcholine, and the acetylation of proteins and histones. We had previously reported that, although loss of Drosophila ATPCL reduced levels of Acetyl-CoA, unlike its human counterpart, it does not affect global histone acetylation and gene expression, suggesting that its role in histone acetylation is either partially redundant in Drosophila or compensated by alternative pathways. Here, we describe that depletion of DmATPCL affects spindle organization, cytokinesis, and fusome assembly during male meiosis, revealing an unanticipated role for DmATPCL during spermatogenesis. We also show that DmATPCL mutant meiotic phenotype is in part caused by a reduction of fatty acids, but not of triglycerides or cholesterol, indicating that DmATPCL-derived Acetyl-CoA is predominantly devoted to the biosynthesis of fatty acids during spermatogenesis. Collectively, our results unveil for the first time an involvement for DmATPCL in the regulation of meiotic cell division, which is likely conserved in human cells.

Plk1/Polo Phosphorylates Sas-4 at the Onset of Mitosis for an Efficient Recruitment of Pericentriolar Material to Centrosomes

Centrosomes are the major microtubule-organizing centers, consisting of centrioles surrounded by a pericentriolar material (PCM). Centrosomal PCM is spatiotemporally regulated to be minimal during interphase and expands as cells enter mitosis. It is unclear how PCM expansion is initiated at the onset of mitosis. Here, we identify that, in Drosophila, Plk1/Polo kinase phosphorylates the conserved centrosomal protein Sas-4 in vitro. This phosphorylation appears to occur at the onset of mitosis, enabling Sas-4's localization to expand outward from meiotic and mitotic centrosomes. The Plk1/Polo kinase site of Sas-4 is then required for an efficient recruitment of Cnn and γ-tubulin, bona fide PCM proteins that are essential for PCM expansion and centrosome maturation. Point mutations at Plk1/Polo sites of Sas-4 affect neither centrosome structure nor centriole duplication but specifically reduce the affinity to bind Cnn and γ-tubulin. These observations identify Plk1/Polo kinase regulation of Sas-4 as essential for efficient PCM expansion.

Drosophila Doublefault protein coordinates multiple events during male meiosis by controlling mRNA translation

During the extended prophase of Drosophila gametogenesis, spermatocytes undergo robust gene transcription and store many transcripts in the cytoplasm in a repressed state, until translational activation of select mRNAs in later steps of spermatogenesis. Here, we characterize the Drosophila Doublefault (Dbf) protein as a C2H2 zinc-finger protein, primarily expressed in testes, that is required for normal meiotic division and spermiogenesis. Loss of Dbf causes premature centriole disengagement and affects spindle structure, chromosome segregation and cytokinesis. We show that Dbf interacts with the RNA-binding protein Syncrip/hnRNPQ, a key regulator of localized translation in Drosophila We propose that the pleiotropic effects of dbf loss-of-function mutants are associated with the requirement of dbf function for translation of specific transcripts in spermatocytes. In agreement with this hypothesis, Dbf protein binds cyclin B mRNA and is essential for translation of cyclin B in mature spermatocytes.

An ordered pattern of Ana2 phosphorylation by Plk4 is required for centriole assembly

Polo-like kinase 4 (Plk4) initiates an early step in centriole assembly by phosphorylating Ana2/STIL, a structural component of the procentriole. Here, we show that Plk4 binding to the central coiled-coil (CC) of Ana2 is a conserved event involving Polo-box 3 and a previously unidentified putative CC located adjacent to the kinase domain. Ana2 is then phosphorylated along its length. Previous studies showed that Plk4 phosphorylates the C-terminal STil/ANa2 (STAN) domain of Ana2/STIL, triggering binding and recruitment of the cartwheel protein Sas6 to the procentriole assembly site. However, the physiological relevance of N-terminal phosphorylation was unknown. We found that Plk4 first phosphorylates the extreme N terminus of Ana2, which is critical for subsequent STAN domain modification. Phosphorylation of the central region then breaks the Plk4-Ana2 interaction. This phosphorylation pattern is important for centriole assembly and integrity because replacement of endogenous Ana2 with phospho-Ana2 mutants disrupts distinct steps in Ana2 function and inhibits centriole duplication.

Polo-like kinase 1 coordinates biosynthesis during cell cycle progression by directly activating pentose phosphate pathway

Two hallmarks for cancer cells are the accelerated cell cycle progression as well as the altered metabolism, however, how these changes are coordinated to optimize the growth advantage for cancer cells are still poorly understood. Here we identify that Polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1), a key regulator for cell mitosis, plays a critical role for biosynthesis in cancer cells through activating pentose phosphate pathway (PPP). We find that Plk1 interacts with and directly phosphorylates glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD). By activating G6PD through promoting the formation of its active dimer, Plk1 increases PPP flux and directs glucose to the synthesis of macromolecules. Importantly, we further demonstrate that Plk1-mediated activation of G6PD is critical for its role to promote cell cycle progression and cancer cell growth. Collectively, these findings establish a critical role for Plk1 in regulating biosynthesis in cancer cells, exemplifying how cell cycle progression and metabolic reprogramming are coordinated for cancer progression.

The Centrioles, Centrosomes, Basal Bodies, and Cilia of Drosophila melanogaster

Centrioles play a key role in the development of the fly. They are needed for the correct formation of centrosomes, the organelles at the poles of the spindle that can persist as microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs) into interphase. The ability to nucleate cytoplasmic microtubules (MTs) is a property of the surrounding pericentriolar material (PCM). The centriole has a dual life, existing not only as the core of the centrosome but also as the basal body, the structure that templates the formation of cilia and flagellae. Thus the structure and functions of the centriole, the centrosome, and the basal body have an impact upon many aspects of development and physiology that can readily be modeled in Drosophila Centrosomes are essential to give organization to the rapidly increasing numbers of nuclei in the syncytial embryo and for the spatially precise execution of cell division in numerous tissues, particularly during male meiosis. Although mitotic cell cycles can take place in the absence of centrosomes, this is an error-prone process that opens up the fly to developmental defects and the potential of tumor formation. Here, we review the structure and functions of the centriole, the centrosome, and the basal body in different tissues and cultured cells of Drosophila melanogaster, highlighting their contributions to different aspects of development and cell division.

Klp10A modulates the localization of centriole-associated proteins during Drosophila male gametogenesis

Mutations in Klp10A, a microtubule-depolymerising Kinesin-13, lead to overly long centrioles in Drosophila male germ cells. We demonstrated that the loss of Klp10A modifies the distribution of typical proteins involved in centriole assembly and function. In the absence of Klp10A the distribution of Drosophila pericentrin-like protein (Dplp), Sas-4 and Sak/Plk4 that are restricted in control testes to the proximal end of the centriole increase along the centriole length. Remarkably, the cartwheel is lacking or it appears abnormal in mutant centrioles, suggesting that this structure may spatially delimit protein localization. Moreover, the parent centrioles that in control cells have the same dimensions grow at different rates in mutant testes with the mother centrioles longer than the daughters. Daughter centrioles have often an ectopic position with respect to the proximal end of the mothers and failed to recruit Dplp.

Myt1 inhibition of Cyclin A/Cdk1 is essential for fusome integrity and premeiotic centriole engagement in Drosophila spermatocytes

Drosophila Myt1 is essential for male fertility. Loss of Myt1 activity causes defective fusomes and premature centriole disengagement during premeiotic G2 phase due to lack of Myt1 inhibition of Cyclin A/Cdk1. These functions are distinct from known roles for Myt1 inhibition of Cyclin B/Cdk1 used to regulate G2/MI timing.

Regulation of cell cycle arrest in premeiotic G2 phase coordinates germ cell maturation and meiotic cell division with hormonal and developmental signals by mechanisms that control Cyclin B synthesis and inhibitory phosphorylation of the M-phase kinase, Cdk1. In this study, we investigated how inhibitory phosphorylation of Cdk1 by Myt1 kinase regulates premeiotic G2 phase of Drosophila male meiosis. Immature spermatocytes lacking Myt1 activity exhibit two distinct defects: disrupted intercellular bridges (fusomes) and premature centriole disengagement. As a result, the myt1 mutant spermatocytes enter meiosis with multipolar spindles. These myt1 defects can be suppressed by depletion of Cyclin A activity or ectopic expression of Wee1 (a partially redundant Cdk1 inhibitory kinase) and phenocopied by expression of a Cdk1F mutant defective for inhibitory phosphorylation. We therefore conclude that Myt1 inhibition of Cyclin A/Cdk1 is essential for normal fusome behavior and centriole engagement during premeiotic G2 arrest of Drosophila male meiosis. The novel meiotic functions we discovered for Myt1 kinase are spatially and temporally distinct from previously described functions of Myt1 as an inhibitor of Cyclin B/Cdk1 to regulate G2/MI timing.

Loss of Polo ameliorates APP-induced Alzheimer's disease-like symptoms in Drosophila

The amyloid precursor protein (APP) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Despite extensive studies, little is known about the regulation of APP’s functions in vivo. Here we report that expression of human APP in Drosophila, in the same temporal-spatial pattern as its homolog APPL, induced morphological defects in wings and larval NMJ, larva and adult locomotion dysfunctions, male choice disorder and lifespan shortening. To identify additional genes that modulate APP functions, we performed a genetic screen and found that loss of Polo, a key regulator of cell cycle, partially suppressed APP-induced morphological and behavioral defects in larval and adult stages. Finally, we showed that eye-specific expression of APP induced retina degeneration and cell cycle re-entry, both phenotypes were mildly ameliorated by loss of Polo. These results suggest Polo is an important in vivo regulator of the pathological functions of APP, and provide insight into the role of cell cycle re-entry in AD pathogenesis.

Polo kinase regulates the localization and activity of the chromosomal passenger complex in meiosis and mitosis in Drosophila melanogaster

Cell cycle progression is regulated by members of the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK), Polo and Aurora families of protein kinases. The levels of expression and localization of the key regulatory kinases are themselves subject to very tight control. There is increasing evidence that crosstalk between the mitotic kinases provides for an additional level of regulation. We have previously shown that Aurora B activates Polo kinase at the centromere in mitosis, and that the interaction between Polo and the chromosomal passenger complex (CPC) component INCENP is essential in this activation. In this report, we show that Polo kinase is required for the correct localization and activity of the CPC in meiosis and mitosis. Study of the phenotype of different polo allele combinations compared to the effect of chemical inhibition revealed significant differences in the localization and activity of the CPC in diploid tissues. Our results shed new light on the mechanisms that control the activity of Aurora B in meiosis and mitosis.

Aurora A inhibition by MNL8054 promotes centriole elongation during Drosophila male meiosis

Aurora A kinase plays an important role in several aspects of cell division, including centrosome maturation and separation, a crucial step for the correct organization of the bipolar spindle. Although it has long been showed that this kinase accumulates at the centrosome throughout mitosis its precise contribution to centriole biogenesis and structure has until now not been reported. It is not surprising that so little is known, due to the small size of somatic centrioles, where only dramatic structural changes may be identified by careful electron microscopy analysis. Conversely, centrioles of Drosophila primary spermatocytes increase tenfold in length during the first prophase, thus making any change easily detectable. Therefore, we examined the consequence of the pharmacological inhibition of Aurora A by MLN8054 on centriole biogenesis during early Drosophila gametogenesis. Here, we show that depletion of this kinase results in longer centrioles, mainly during transition from prophase to prometaphase of the first meiosis. We also found abnormal ciliogenesis characterized by irregularly growing axonemal doublets. Our results represent the first documentation of a potential requirement of Aurora A in centriole integrity and elongation.

Plk4 phosphorylates Ana2 to trigger Sas6 recruitment and procentriole formation

Centrioles are 9-fold symmetrical structures at the core of centrosomes and base of cilia whose dysfunction has been linked to a wide range of inherited diseases and cancer [1]. Their duplication is regulated by a protein kinase of conserved structure, the C. elegans ZYG-1 or its Polo-like kinase 4 (Plk4) counterpart in other organisms [2, 3, 4]. Although Plk4’s centriolar partners and mechanisms that regulate its stability are known, its crucial substrates for centriole duplication have never been identified. Here we show that Drosophila Plk4 phosphorylates four conserved serines in the STAN motif of the core centriole protein Ana2 to enable it to bind and recruit its Sas6 partner. Ana2 and Sas6 normally load onto both mother and daughter centrioles immediately after their disengagement toward the end of mitosis to seed procentriole formation. Nonphosphorylatable Ana2 still localizes to the centriole but can no longer recruit Sas6 and centriole duplication fails. Thus, following centriole disengagement, recruitment of Ana2 and its phosphorylation by Plk4 are the earliest known events in centriole duplication to recruit Sas6 and thereby establish the architecture of the new procentriole engaged with its parent.

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Plk4 phosphorylates Ana2 at essential residues in its conserved STAN motif

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Plk4 phosphorylation triggers the direct interaction of Ana2 with Sas6

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Ana2 phosphorylated by Plk4 recruits Sas6 to centrioles at the end of mitosis

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A phospho-null Ana2 mutant fails to recruit Sas6 and duplicate centrioles