Pre-mRNA 3' cleavage is reversibly inhibited in vitro by cleavage factor dephosphorylation

Fateful Decisions of Where to Cut the Line: Pathology Associated with Aberrant 3' End Processing and Transcription Termination

Aberrant gene expression lies at the heart of many pathologies. This review will point out how 3' end processing, the final mRNA-maturation step in the transcription cycle, is surprisingly prone to regulated as well as stochastic variations with a wide range of consequences. Whereas smaller variations contribute to the plasticity of gene expression, larger alternations to 3' end processing and coupled transcription termination can lead to pathological consequences. These can be caused by the local mutation of one gene or affect larger numbers of genes systematically, if aspects of the mechanisms of 3' end processing and transcription termination are altered.

Regulation of alternative polyadenylation by the C2H2-zinc-finger protein Sp1

Alternative polyadenylation (APA) enhances gene regulatory potential by increasing the diversity of mRNA transcripts. 3' UTR shortening through APA correlates with enhanced cellular proliferation and is a widespread phenomenon in tumor cells. Here, we show that the ubiquitously expressed transcription factor Sp1 binds RNA in vivo and is a common repressor of distal poly(A) site usage. RNA sequencing identified 2,344 genes (36% of the total mapped mRNA transcripts) with lengthened 3' UTRs upon Sp1 depletion. Sp1 preferentially binds the 3' UTRs of such lengthened transcripts and inhibits cleavage at distal sites by interacting with the subunits of the core cleavage and polyadenylation (CPA) machinery. The 3' UTR lengths of Sp1 target genes in breast cancer patient RNA-seq data correlate with Sp1 expression levels, implicating Sp1-mediated APA regulation in modulating tumorigenic properties. Taken together, our findings provide insights into the mechanism for dynamic APA regulation by unraveling a previously unknown function of the DNA-binding transcription factor Sp1.

Regulation of the Ysh1 endonuclease of the mRNA cleavage/polyadenylation complex by ubiquitin-mediated degradation

Mutation of the essential yeast protein Ipa1 has previously been demonstrated to cause defects in pre-mRNA 3' end processing and growth, but the mechanism underlying these defects was not clear. In this study, we show that the ipa1-1 mutation causes a striking depletion of Ysh1, the evolutionarily conserved endonuclease subunit of the 19-subunit mRNA Cleavage/Polyadenylation (C/P) complex, but does not decrease other C/P subunits. YSH1 overexpression rescues both the growth and 3' end processing defects of the ipa1-1 mutant. YSH1 mRNA level is unchanged in ipa1-1 cells, and proteasome inactivation prevents Ysh1 loss and causes accumulation of ubiquitinated Ysh1. Ysh1 ubiquitination is mediated by the Ubc4 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme and Mpe1, which in addition to its function in C/P, is also a RING ubiquitin ligase. In summary, Ipa1 affects mRNA processing by controlling the availability of the C/P endonuclease and may represent a regulatory mechanism that could be rapidly deployed to facilitate reprogramming of cellular responses.

Plant 3' Regulatory Regions From mRNA-Encoding Genes and Their Uses to Modulate Expression

Molecular biotechnology has made it possible to explore the potential of plants for different purposes. The 3' regulatory regions have a great diversity of cis-regulatory elements directly involved in polyadenylation, stability, transport and mRNA translation, essential to achieve the desired levels of gene expression. A complex interaction between the cleavage and polyadenylation molecular complex and cis-elements determine the polyadenylation site, which may result in the choice of non-canonical sites, resulting in alternative polyadenylation events, involved in the regulation of more than 80% of the genes expressed in plants. In addition, after transcription, a wide array of RNA-binding proteins interacts with cis-acting elements located mainly in the 3' untranslated region, determining the fate of mRNAs in eukaryotic cells. Although a small number of 3' regulatory regions have been identified and validated so far, many studies have shown that plant 3' regulatory regions have a higher potential to regulate gene expression in plants compared to widely used 3' regulatory regions, such as NOS and OCS from Agrobacterium tumefaciens and 35S from cauliflower mosaic virus. In this review, we discuss the role of 3' regulatory regions in gene expression, and the superior potential that plant 3' regulatory regions have compared to NOS, OCS and 35S 3' regulatory regions.

Optimizing In Vitro Pre-mRNA 3' Cleavage Efficiency: Reconstitution from Anion-Exchange Separated HeLa Cleavage Factors and from Adherent HeLa Cell Nuclear Extract

Eukaryotic RNA processing steps during mRNA maturation present the cell with opportunities for gene expression regulation. One such step is the pre-mRNA 3' cleavage reaction, which defines the downstream end of the 3' untranslated region and, in nearly all mRNA, prepares the message for addition of the poly(A) tail. The in vitro reconstitution of 3' cleavage provides an experimental means to investigate the roles of the various multi-subunit cleavage factors. Anion-exchange chromatography is the simplest procedure for separating the core mammalian cleavage factors. Here we describe a method for optimizing the in vitro reconstitution of 3' cleavage activity from the DEAE-sepharose separated HeLa cleavage factors and show how to ensure, or avoid, dependence on creatine phosphate. Important reaction components needed for optimal processing are discussed. We also provide an optimized procedure for preparing small-scale HeLa nuclear extracts from adherent cells for use in 3' cleavage in vitro.

Cleavage factor Im (CFIm) as a regulator of alternative polyadenylation

Most mammalian protein coding genes are subject to alternative cleavage and polyadenylation (APA), which can generate distinct mRNA 3'UTRs with differing regulatory potential. Although this process has been intensely studied in recent years, it remains unclear how and to what extent cleavage site selection is regulated under different physiological conditions. The cleavage factor Im (CFIm) complex is a core component of the mammalian cleavage machinery, and the observation that its depletion causes transcriptome-wide changes in cleavage site use makes it a key candidate regulator of APA. This review aims to summarize current knowledge of the CFIm complex, and explores the evidence surrounding its potential contribution to regulation of APA.

Noncanonical Alternative Polyadenylation Contributes to Gene Regulation in Response to Hypoxia

Stresses from various environmental challenges continually confront plants, and their responses are important for growth and survival. One molecular response to such challenges involves the alternative polyadenylation of mRNA. In plants, it is unclear how stress affects the production and fate of alternative mRNA isoforms. Using a genome-scale approach, we show that in Arabidopsis thaliana, hypoxia leads to increases in the number of mRNA isoforms with polyadenylated 3' ends that map to 5'-untranslated regions (UTRs), introns, and protein-coding regions. RNAs with 3' ends within protein-coding regions and introns were less stable than mRNAs that end at 3'-UTR poly(A) sites. Additionally, these RNA isoforms were underrepresented in polysomes isolated from control and hypoxic plants. By contrast, mRNA isoforms with 3' ends that lie within annotated 5'-UTRs were overrepresented in polysomes and were as stable as canonical mRNA isoforms. These results indicate that the generation of noncanonical mRNA isoforms is an important feature of the abiotic stress response. The finding that several noncanonical mRNA isoforms are relatively unstable suggests that the production of non-stop and intronic mRNA isoforms may represent a form of negative regulation in plants, providing a conceptual link with mechanisms that generate these isoforms (such as alternative polyadenylation) and RNA surveillance.

Roles of Sumoylation in mRNA Processing and Metabolism

SUMO has gained prominence as a regulator in a number of cellular processes. The roles of sumoylation in RNA metabolism, however, while considerable, remain less well understood. In this chapter we have assembled data from proteomic analyses, localization studies and key functional studies to extend SUMO's role to the area of mRNA processing and metabolism. Proteomic analyses have identified multiple putative sumoylation targets in complexes functioning in almost all aspects of mRNA metabolism, including capping, splicing and polyadenylation of mRNA precursors. Possible regulatory roles for SUMO have emerged in pre-mRNA 3' processing, where SUMO influences the functions of polyadenylation factors and activity of the entire complex. SUMO is also involved in regulating RNA editing and RNA binding by hnRNP proteins, and recent reports have suggested the involvement of the SUMO pathway in mRNA export. Together, these reports suggest that SUMO is involved in regulation of many aspects of mRNA metabolism and hold the promise for exciting future studies.

An investigation into the role of ATP in the mammalian pre-mRNA 3' cleavage reaction

RNA Polymerase II transcribes beyond what later becomes the 3' end of a mature messenger RNA (mRNA). The formation of most mRNA 3' ends results from pre-mRNA cleavage followed by polyadenylation. In vitro studies have shown that low concentrations of ATP stimulate the 3' cleavage reaction while high concentrations inhibit it, but the origin of these ATP effects is unknown. ATP might enable a cleavage factor kinase or activate a cleavage factor directly. To distinguish between these possibilities, we tested several ATP structural analogs in a pre-mRNA 3' cleavage reaction reconstituted from DEAE-fractionated cleavage factors. We found that adenosine 5'-(β,γ-methylene)triphosphate (AMP-PCP) is an effective in vitro 3' cleavage inhibitor with an IC50 of ∼300 μM, but that most other ATP analogs, including adenosine 5'-(β,γ-imido)triphosphate, which cannot serve as a protein kinase substrate, promoted 3' cleavage but less efficiently than ATP. In combination with previous literature data, our results do not support ATP stimulation of 3' cleavage through cleavage factor phosphorylation in vitro. Instead, the more likely mechanism is that ATP stimulates cleavage factor activity through direct cleavage factor binding. The mammalian 3' cleavage factors known to bind ATP include the cleavage factor II (CF IIm) Clp1 subunit, the CF Im25 subunit and poly(A) polymerase alpha (PAP). The yeast homolog of the CF IIm complex also binds ATP through yClp1. To investigate the mammalian complex, we used a cell-line expressing FLAG-tagged Clp1 to co-immunoprecipitate Pcf11 as a function of ATP concentration. FLAG-Clp1 co-precipitated Pcf11 with or without ATP and the complex was not affected by AMP-PCP. Diadenosine tetraphosphate (Ap4A), an ATP analog that binds the Nudix domain of the CF Im25 subunit with higher affinity than ATP, neither stimulated 3' cleavage in place of ATP nor antagonized ATP-stimulated 3' cleavage. The ATP-binding site of PAP was disrupted by site directed mutagenesis but a reconstituted 3' cleavage reaction containing a mutant PAP unable to bind ATP nevertheless underwent ATP-stimulated 3' cleavage. Fluctuating ATP levels might contribute to the regulation of pre-mRNA 3' cleavage, but the three subunits investigated here do not appear to be responsible for the ATP-stimulation of pre-mRNA cleavage.

In vitro analysis of cleavage and polyadenylation in Arabidopsis

In eukaryotes, pre-messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) cleavage and polyadenylation is one of the necessary processing steps that produce a mature and functional mRNA. Regulation on pre-mRNA cleavage and polyadenylation affects other processes such as mRNA translocation, stability, and translation. The process of pre-mRNA cleavage and polyadenylation, and its relationship with RNA splicing and translation, have been extensively studied due to its importance in vivo. A successful in vitro system has provided enormous amount of information to the study of cleavage and polyadenylation in the mammalian and yeast systems. Here, we describe an in vitro pre-mRNA cleavage system that faithfully cleaves pre-mRNA substrate using Arabidopsis cell/tissue cultures.

Structurally diverse low molecular weight activators of the mammalian pre-mRNA 3' cleavage reaction

The 3' end formation of mammalian pre-mRNA contributes to gene expression regulation by setting the downstream boundary of the 3' untranslated region, which in many genes carries regulatory sequences. A large number of protein cleavage factors participate in this pre-mRNA processing step, but chemical tools to manipulate this process are lacking. Guided by a hypothesis that a PPM1 family phosphatase negatively regulates the 3' cleavage reaction, we have found a variety of new small molecule activators of the in vitro reconstituted pre-mRNA 3' cleavage reaction. New activators include a cyclic peptide PPM1D inhibitor, a dipeptide with modifications common to histone tails, abscisic acid and an improved l-arginine β-naphthylamide analog. The minimal concentration required for in vitro cleavage has been improved from 200μM to the 200nM-100μM range. These compounds provide unexpected leads in the search for small molecule tools able to affect pre-mRNA 3' end formation.

An RNAi screen identifies additional members of the Drosophila Integrator complex and a requirement for cyclin C/Cdk8 in snRNA 3'-end formation

Formation of the 3' end of RNA polymerase II-transcribed snRNAs requires a poorly understood group of proteins called the Integrator complex. Here we used a fluorescence-based read-through reporter that expresses GFP in response to snRNA misprocessing and performed a genome-wide RNAi screen in Drosophila S2 cells to identify novel factors required for snRNA 3'-end formation. In addition to the known Integrator complex members, we identified Asunder and CG4785 as additional Integrator subunits. Functional and biochemical experiments revealed that Asunder and CG4785 are additional core members of the Integrator complex. We also identified a conserved requirement in both fly and human snRNA 3'-end processing for cyclin C and Cdk8 that is distinct from their function in the Mediator Cdk8 module. Moreover, we observed biochemical association between Integrator proteins and cyclin C/Cdk8, and that overexpression of a kinase-dead Cdk8 causes snRNA misprocessing. These data functionally define the Drosophila Integrator complex and demonstrate an additional function for cyclin C/Cdk8 unrelated to its function in Mediator.

Cleavage factor Im is a key regulator of 3' UTR length

In eukaryotes, the 3' ends of RNA polymerase II-transcribed RNAs are generated in the majority of cases by site-specific endonucleolytic cleavage, followed by the addition of a poly(A) tail. Through alternative polyadenylation, a gene can give rise to multiple mRNA isoforms that differ in the length of their 3' UTRs and hence in their susceptibility to post-transcriptional regulatory factors such as microRNAs. A series of recently conducted high-throughput studies of poly(A) site usage revealed an extensive tissue-specific control and drastic changes in the length of mRNA 3' UTRs upon induction of proliferation in resting cells. To understand the dynamics of poly(A) site choice, we recently identified binding sites of the major pre-mRNA 3' end processing factors - cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor (CPSF), cleavage stimulation factor (CstF), and cleavage factor Im (CF Im) - and mapped polyadenylation sites in HEK293 cells. Our present study extends previous findings on the role of CF Im in alternative polyadenylation and reveals that subunits of the CF Im complex generally control 3' UTR length. More specifically, we demonstrate that the loss-of-function of CF Im 68 and CF Im 25 but not of CF Im 59 leads to a transcriptome-wide increase in the use of proximal polyadenylation sites in HEK293 cells.

Knockdown of pre-mRNA cleavage factor Im 25 kDa promotes neurite outgrowth

Mammalian precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA) cleavage factor I (CFIm) plays important roles in the selection of poly(A) sites in a 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR), producing mRNAs with variable 3' ends. Because 3'-UTRs often contain cis elements that impact stability or localization of mRNA or translation, alternative polyadenylation diversifies utilization of primary transcripts in mammalian cells. However, the physiological role of CFIm remains unclear. CFIm acts as a heterodimer comprising a 25kDa subunit (CFIm25) and one of the three large subunits-CFIm59, CFIm68, or CFIm72. CFIm25 binds directly to RNA and introduces and anchors the larger subunit. To examine the physiological roles of CFIm, we knocked down the CFIm25 gene in neuronal cells using RNA interference. Knockdown of CFIm25 increased the number of primary dendrites of developing hippocampal neurons and promoted nerve growth factor (NGF)-induced neurite extension from rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells without affecting the morphology of proliferating PC12 cells. On the other hand, CFIm25 knockdown did not influence constitutively active or dominantly negative RhoA suppression or promotion of NGF-induced neurite extension from PC12 cells, respectively. Taken together, our results indicate that endogenous CFIm may promote neuritogenesis in developing neurons by coordinating events upstream of NGF-induced RhoA inactivation.

Genome-wide analysis of pre-mRNA 3' end processing reveals a decisive role of human cleavage factor I in the regulation of 3' UTR length

Through alternative polyadenylation, human mRNAs acquire longer or shorter 3' untranslated regions, the latter typically associated with higher transcript stability and increased protein production. To understand the dynamics of polyadenylation site usage, we performed transcriptome-wide mapping of both binding sites of 3' end processing factors CPSF-160, CPSF-100, CPSF-73, CPSF-30, Fip1, CstF-64, CstF-64τ, CF I(m)25, CF I(m)59, and CF I(m)68 and 3' end processing sites in HEK293 cells. We found that although binding sites of these factors generally cluster around the poly(A) sites most frequently used in cleavage, CstF-64/CstF-64τ and CFI(m) proteins have much higher positional specificity compared to CPSF components. Knockdown of CF I(m)68 induced a systematic use of proximal polyadenylation sites, indicating that changes in relative abundance of a single 3' end processing factor can modulate the length of 3' untranslated regions across the transcriptome and suggesting a mechanism behind the previously observed increase in tumor cell invasiveness upon CF I(m)68 knockdown.

mRNA 3' end processing and more--multiple functions of mammalian cleavage factor I-68

The formation of defined 3(') ends is an important step in the biogenesis of mRNAs. In eukaryotic cells, all mRNA 3(') ends are generated by endonucleolytic cleavage of primary transcripts in reactions that are essentially posttranscriptional. Nevertheless, 3(') end formation is tightly connected to transcription in vivo, and a link with mRNA export to the cytoplasm has been postulated. Here, we briefly review the current knowledge about the two types of mRNA 3(') end processing reactions, cleavage/polyadenylation and histone RNA processing. We then focus on factors shared between these two reactions. In particular, we discuss evidence for new functions of the mammalian cleavage factor I subunit CF I(m) 68 in histone RNA 3(') processing and in the export of mature mRNAs from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.

Small molecule activators of pre-mRNA 3' cleavage

3' Cleavage and polyadenylation are obligatory steps in the biogenesis of most mammalian pre-mRNAs. In vitro reconstitution of the 3' cleavage reaction from human cleavage factors requires high concentrations of creatine phosphate (CP), though how CP activates cleavage is not known. Previously, we proposed that CP might work by competitively inhibiting a cleavage-suppressing serine/threonine (S/T) phosphatase. Here we show that fluoride/EDTA, a general S/T phosphatase inhibitor, activates in vitro cleavage in place of CP. Subsequent testing of inhibitors specific for different S/T phosphatases showed that inhibitors of the PPM family of S/T phosphatases, which includes PP2C, but not the PPP family, which includes PP1, PP2A, and PP2B, activated 3' cleavage in vitro. In particular, NCI 83633, an inhibitor of PP2C, activated extensive 3' cleavage at a concentration 50-fold below that required by fluoride or CP. The testing of structural analogs led to the identification of a more potent compound that activated 3' cleavage at 200 microM. While testing CP analogs to understand the origin of its cleavage activation effect, we found phosphocholine to be a more effective activator than CP. The minimal structural determinants of 3' cleavage activation by phosphocholine were identified. Our results describe a much improved small molecule activator of in vitro pre-mRNA cleavage, identify the molecular determinants of cleavage activation by phosphoamines such as phosphocholine, and suggest that a PPM family phosphatase is involved in the negative regulation of mammalian pre-mRNA 3' cleavage.

Alternative polyadenylation: a twist on mRNA 3' end formation

Regulation of gene expression by RNA processing mechanisms is now understood to be an important level of control in mammalian cells. Regulation at the level of RNA transcription, splicing, polyadenylation, nucleo-cytoplasmic transport, and translation into polypeptides has been well-studied. Alternative RNA processing events, such as alternative splicing, also have been recognized as key contributors to the complexity of mammalian gene expression. Pre-messenger RNAs (pre-mRNAs) may be polyadenylated in several different ways due to more than one polyadenylation signal, allowing a single gene to encode multiple mRNA transcripts. However, alternative polyadenylation has only recently taken the field as a major player in gene regulation. This review summarizes what is currently known about alternative polyadenylation. It covers results from bioinformatics, as well as those from investigations of viral and tissue-specific studies and, importantly, will set the stage for what is yet to come.

Unphosphorylated SR-like protein Npl3 stimulates RNA polymerase II elongation

The production of a functional mRNA is regulated at every step of transcription. An area not well-understood is the transition of RNA polymerase II from elongation to termination. The S. cerevisiae SR-like protein Npl3 functions to negatively regulate transcription termination by antagonizing the binding of polyA/termination proteins to the mRNA. In this study, Npl3 is shown to interact with the CTD and have a direct stimulatory effect on the elongation activity of the polymerase. The interaction is inhibited by phosphorylation of Npl3. In addition, Casein Kinase 2 was found to be required for the phosphorylation of Npl3 and affect its ability to compete against Rna15 (Cleavage Factor I) for binding to polyA signals. Our results suggest that phosphorylation of Npl3 promotes its dissociation from the mRNA/RNAP II, and contributes to the association of the polyA/termination factor Rna15. This work defines a novel role for Npl3 in elongation and its regulation by phosphorylation.

Protein factors in pre-mRNA 3'-end processing

Most eukaryotic mRNA precursors (premRNAs) must undergo extensive processing, including cleavage and polyadenylation at the 3'-end. Processing at the 3'-end is controlled by sequence elements in the pre-mRNA (cis elements) as well as protein factors. Despite the seeming biochemical simplicity of the processing reactions, more than 14 proteins have been identified for the mammalian complex, and more than 20 proteins have been identified for the yeast complex. The 3'-end processing machinery also has important roles in transcription and splicing. The mammalian machinery contains several sub-complexes, including cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor, cleavage stimulation factor, cleavage factor I, and cleavage factor II. Additional protein factors include poly(A) polymerase, poly(A)-binding protein, symplekin, and the C-terminal domain of RNA polymerase II largest subunit. The yeast machinery includes cleavage factor IA, cleavage factor IB, and cleavage and polyadenylation factor.

Finishing touches: post-translational modification of protein factors involved in mammalian pre-mRNA 3' end formation

In eukaryotes, a pre-messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) must undergo several processing reactions before it is exported to the cytoplasm for translation. One of these reactions, endonucleolytic 3' cleavage at the polyadenylation site, prepares the pre-mRNA for addition of the poly(A) tail and defines the 3' untranslated region (UTR), which typically contains important gene expression regulatory sequences. While the protein factors responsible for the endonucleolytic cleavage have been largely identified, the means by which their action is limited to the 3' end of the transcription unit and coordinated with other co-transcriptional events remains unclear. In this review, we summarize and review recent findings revealing that the mammalian 3' cleavage factors undergo extensive post-translational modification. These modifications include: arginine methylation, lysine sumoylation, lysine acetylation, and the phosphorylation of serine, threonine and tyrosine residues. Every cleavage factor, though not every subunit, is affected. Human Fip1 and the 59 kDa subunit of cleavage factor I emerge as the most frequently modified core cleavage factor subunits. We outline and compare the various proteomic methods that have uncovered these modifications, and review emerging hypotheses concerning their function. The roles of these covalent but reversible modifications in other systems suggest that 3' end formation in mammals relies upon post-translational modification for proper function and regulation.