Chemical and Physical Architecture of Macromolecular Gels for Fracturing Fluid Applications in the Oil and Gas Industry; Current Status, Challenges, and Prospects

Hydraulic fracturing is vital in recovering hydrocarbons from oil and gas reservoirs. It involves injecting a fluid under high pressure into reservoir rock. A significant part of fracturing fluids is the addition of polymers that become gels or gel-like under reservoir conditions. Polymers are employed as viscosifiers and friction reducers to provide proppants in fracturing fluids as a transport medium. There are numerous systems for fracturing fluids based on macromolecules. The employment of natural and man-made linear polymers, and also, to a lesser extent, synthetic hyperbranched polymers, as additives in fracturing fluids in the past one to two decades has shown great promise in enhancing the stability of fracturing fluids under various challenging reservoir conditions. Modern innovations demonstrate the importance of developing chemical structures and properties to improve performance. Key challenges include maintaining viscosity under reservoir conditions and achieving suitable shear-thinning behavior. The physical architecture of macromolecules and novel crosslinking processes are essential in addressing these issues. The effect of macromolecule interactions on reservoir conditions is very critical in regard to efficient fluid qualities and successful fracturing operations. In future, there is the potential for ongoing studies to produce specialized macromolecular solutions for increased efficiency and sustainability in oil and gas applications.

Polymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticles as potential lipophilic anticancer drug carriers

Nanocarrier systems are widely used for drug delivery applications, but limitations such as the use of synthetic surfactants, leakage of toxic drugs, and a poor encapsulation capacity remain as challenges. We present a new hybrid nanocarrier system that utilizes natural materials to overcome these limitations and improve the safety and efficacy of drug delivery. The system comprises a biopolymeric shell and a lipid core, encapsulating the lipophilic anticancer drug paclitaxel. Bovine serum albumin and dextran, in various molecular weights, are covalently conjugated via Maillard reaction to form the shell which serves as a stabilizer to maintain nanoparticle integrity. The properties of the system, such as Maillard conjugate concentration, protein/polysaccharide molar ratio, and polysaccharide molecular weight, are optimized to enhance nanoparticle size and stability. The system shows high stability at different pH conditions, high drug loading capacity, and effective in vitro drug release through the trigger of enzymes and passive diffusion. Serine proteases are used to digest the protein portion of the nanoparticle shell to enhance the drug release. This nanocarrier system represents a significant advancement in the field of nanomedicine, offering a safe and effective alternative for the delivery of lipophilic drugs.

Drug Delivery Application of Functional Nanomaterials Synthesized Using Natural Sources

Nanomaterials (NMs) synthesized from natural sources have been attracting greater attention, due to their intrinsic advantages including biocompatibility, stimuli-responsive property, nontoxicity, cost-effectiveness, and non-immunogenic characteristics in the biological environment. Among various biomedical applications, a breakthrough has been achieved in the development of drug delivery systems (DDS). Biocompatibility is necessary for treating a disease safely without any adverse effects. Some components in DDS respond to the physiological environment, such as pH, temperature, and functional group at the target, which facilitates targeted drug release. NM-based DDS is being applied for treating cancer, arthritis, cardiovascular diseases, and dermal and ophthalmic diseases. Metal nanomaterials and carbon quantum dots are synthesized and stabilized using functional molecules extracted from natural sources. Polymers, mucilage and gums, exosomes, and molecules with biological activities are directly derived from natural sources. In DDS, these functional components have been used as drug carriers, imaging agents, targeting moieties, and super disintegrants. Plant extracts, biowaste, biomass, and microorganisms have been used as the natural source for obtaining these NMs. This review highlights the natural sources, synthesis, and application of metallic materials, polymeric materials, carbon dots, mucilage and gums, and exosomes in DDS. Aside from that, challenges and future perspectives on using natural resources for DDS are also discussed.

Organic and inorganic nanomaterials: fabrication, properties and applications

Nanomaterials and nanoparticles are a burgeoning field of research and a rapidly expanding technology sector in a wide variety of application domains. Nanomaterials have made exponential progress due to their numerous uses in a variety of fields, particularly the advancement of engineering technology. Nanoparticles are divided into various groups based on the size, shape, and structural morphology of their bodies. The 21st century's defining feature of nanoparticles is their application in the design and production of semiconductor devices made of metals, metal oxides, carbon allotropes, and chalcogenides. For the researchers, these materials then opened a new door to a variety of applications, including energy storage, catalysis, and biosensors, as well as devices for conversion and medicinal uses. For chemical and thermal applications, ZnO is one of the most stable n-type semiconducting materials available. It is utilised in a wide range of products, from luminous materials to batteries, supercapacitors, solar cells to biomedical photocatalysis sensors, and it may be found in a number of forms, including pellets, nanoparticles, bulk crystals, and thin films. The distinctive physiochemical characteristics of semiconducting metal oxides are particularly responsible for this. ZnO nanostructures differ depending on the synthesis conditions, growth method, growth process, and substrate type. A number of distinct growth strategies for ZnO nanostructures, including chemical, physical, and biological methods, have been recorded. These nanostructures may be synthesized very simply at very low temperatures. This review focuses on and summarizes recent achievements in fabricating semiconductor devices based on nanostructured materials as 2D materials as well as rapidly developing hybrid structures. Apart from this, challenges and promising prospects in this research field are also discussed.

The State of the Art of Natural Polymer Functionalized Fe3O4 Magnetic Nanoparticle Composites for Drug Delivery Applications: A Review

Natural polymers have received a great deal of interest for their potential use in the encapsulation and transportation of pharmaceuticals and other bioactive compounds for disease treatment. In this perspective, the drug delivery systems (DDS) constructed by representative natural polymers from animals (gelatin and hyaluronic acid), plants (pectin and starch), and microbes (Xanthan gum and Dextran) are provided. In order to enhance the efficiency of polymers in DDS by delivering the medicine to the right location, reducing the medication's adverse effects on neighboring organs or tissues, and controlling the medication's release to stop the cycle of over- and under-dosing, the incorporation of Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles with the polymers has engaged the most consideration due to their rare characteristics, such as easy separation, superparamagnetism, and high surface area. This review is designed to report the recent progress of natural polymeric Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles in drug delivery applications, based on different polymers' origins.

Recent Advances in Biodegradable Polymers and Their Biological Applications: A Brief Review

The rising significance of the field of biopolymers has driven the rapid progress of this distinctive class of polymeric materials in the past decades. Biodegradable polymers have acquired much attention because they play an essential role in humans' lives due to their specific tunable electrical conductivity and biodegradability characteristics, making them fascinating in many applications. Herein, we debated the recent progress in developing biodegradable polymers and their applications. Initially, we introduce the basics of conducting and biodegradable polymers, trailed by debates about the effective strategies currently used to develop biopolymers. Special importance will focus on the uses of biodegradable polymers in drug delivery and tissue engineering, as well as wound healing, demonstrating the recent findings, and uses of several biodegradable polymers in modern biological uses. In this review, we have provided comprehensive viewpoints on the latest progress of the challenges and future prospects involving biodegradable polymers' advancement and commercial applications.

Emerging applications of nanotechnology in context to immunology: A comprehensive review

Numerous benefits of nanotechnology are available in many scientific domains. In this sense, nanoparticles serve as the fundamental foundation of nanotechnology. Recent developments in nanotechnology have demonstrated that nanoparticles have enormous promise for use in almost every field of life sciences. Nanoscience and nanotechnology use the distinctive characteristics of tiny nanoparticles (NPs) for various purposes in electronics, fabrics, cosmetics, biopharmaceutical industries, and medicines. The exclusive physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of nanoparticles prompt different immune responses in the body. Nanoparticles are believed to have strong potential for the development of advanced adjuvants, cytokines, vaccines, drugs, immunotherapies, and theranostic applications for the treatment of targeted bacterial, fungal, viral, and allergic diseases and removal of the tumor with minimal toxicity as compared to macro and microstructures. This review highlights the medical and non-medical applications with a detailed discussion on enhanced and targeted natural and acquired immunity against pathogens provoked by nanoparticles. The immunological aspects of the nanotechnology field are beyond the scope of this Review. However, we provide updated data that will explore novel theragnostic immunological applications of nanotechnology for better and immediate treatment.

Bio_Fabricated Levan Polymer from Bacillus subtilis MZ292983.1 with Antibacterial, Antibiofilm, and Burn Healing Properties

The biopolymer levan has sparked a lot of interest in commercial production and various industrial applications. In this study, a bacterial isolate with promising levan-producing ability was isolated from a soil sample obtained from Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University in Saudi Arabia. The isolate has been identified and submitted to GenBank as Bacillus subtilis MZ292983.1. The bacterial levan polymer was extracted using ethyl alcohol (75%) and CaCl2 (1%) and then characterized using several approaches, such as Fourier transform infrared spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance. The IR spectrum of the levan polymer showed characteristic peaks confirming characteristics of polysaccharides, including a broad stretching peak of OH around 3417 cm−1 and aliphatic CH stretching was observed as two peaks at 2943, and 2885 cm−1. In addition, the FTIR spectrum featured an absorption at 2121 cm−1, indicating the fingerprint of the β-glycosidic bond. Based on 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy analysis, six unexchanged proton signals related to fructose as a forming monomer of levan were observed. Evaluation of levan’s antibacterial effect against two pathogenic bacteria, S. aureus (ATCC 33592) and E. coli (ATCC 25922), showed inhibition zones of 1 cm and 0.8 cm in diameter, respectively, with MICs of more than 256 μg mL−1 for both strains. Moreover, the antibiofilm property of the levan polymer was assessed and the results showed that the inhibition rate was positively proportional to the levan concentration, as the inhibition percentages were 50%, 29.4%, 29.4%, 26.5%, and 14.7% at concentrations of 2, 1, 0.5, 0.25, and 0.125 mg mL−1, respectively. Levan showed a significant role in burn healing properties since it accelerated the process of healing burn-induced areas in rats when compared with those either treated with normal saline or treated with the cream base only.

Preparation and Characterization of Chitosan-Alginate Microspheres Loaded with Quercetin

The aim of this paper was to formulate microspheres based on biodegradable polymers (chitosan and sodium alginate), using the complex coacervation technique. Subsequently, the prepared microspheres were loaded with quercetin (QUE), a pharmacological active ingredient insoluble in water and unstable to light, temperature and air. After preparation, the loaded microspheres underwent several studies for physical chemical characterization (performed by scanning electron microscopy-SEM, laser 3D scanning, and thermal analysis-TA). Furthermore, they were analyzed in order to obtain information regarding swelling index, drug entrapment, and in vitro release capacity. The obtained experimental data demonstrated 86.07% entrapment of QUE into the microspheres, in the case of the one with the highest Ch concentration. Additionally, it was proved that such systems allow the controlled release of the active drug over 24 h at the intestinal level. SEM micrographs proved that the prepared microspheres have a wrinkled surface, with compact structures and a large number of folds. On the basis of the TA analysis, it was concluded that the obtained microspheres were thermally stable, facilitating their usage at normal physiological temperatures as drug delivery systems.

Utilization of Carica papaya latex on coating of SPIONs for dye removal and drug delivery

Latex, a milky substance found in a variety of plants which is a natural source of biologically active compounds. In this study, Latex was collected from raw Carica papaya and was characterized using UV-Vis, FTIR and GC-MS analyses. Super Paramagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (SPIONs) were synthesized, coated with C. papaya latex (PL-Sp) and characterized using UV-Vis, FT-IR, SEM-EDX, XRD, VSM and Zeta potential analyses. SPIONs and latex coated SPIONs (PL-Sp) were used in batch adsorption study for effective removal of Methylene blue (MB) dye, where (PL-Sp) removed MB dye effectively. Further the PL-Sp was used to produce a nanoconjugate loaded with curcumin and it was characterized using UV-Vis spectrophotometer, FT-IR, SEM-EDX, XRD, VSM and Zeta potential. It showed a sustained drug release pattern and also found to have good antibacterial and anticancer activity.

Advanced Nanomaterials for Preparedness Against (Re-)Emerging Viral Diseases

While the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) accounts for the current global pandemic, the emergence of other unknown pathogens, named "Disease X," remains a serious concern in the future. Emerging or re-emerging pathogens continue to pose significant challenges to global public health. In response, the scientific community has been urged to create advanced platform technologies to meet the ever-increasing needs presented by these devastating diseases with pandemic potential. This review aims to bring new insights to allow for the application of advanced nanomaterials in future diagnostics, vaccines, and antiviral therapies, thereby addressing the challenges associated with the current preparedness strategies in clinical settings against viruses. The application of nanomaterials has advanced medicine and provided cutting-edge solutions for unmet needs. Herein, an overview of the currently available nanotechnologies is presented, highlighting the significant features that enable them to control infectious diseases, and identifying the challenges that remain to be addressed for the commercial production of nano-based products is presented. Finally, to conclude, the development of a nanomaterial-based system using a "One Health" approach is suggested. This strategy would require a transdisciplinary collaboration and communication between all stakeholders throughout the entire process spanning across research and development, as well as the preclinical, clinical, and manufacturing phases.

Poly(amidoamine) Dendrimers as Nanocarriers for 5-Fluorouracil: Effectiveness of Complex Formation and Cytotoxicity Studies

Two generations of positively charged poly(amidoamine) dendrimers (PAMAMs) were selected for study as potential carriers for the anticancer drug 5-fluorouracil (5FU), a drug primarily used in the treatment of colorectal cancer. Analytical techniques, such as UV-Vis spectrophotometry, NMR Spectroscopy and Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV), have shown that the most critical factor determining the formation of a PAMAM-5FU complex is the starting components' protonation degree. The tests confirmed the system's ability to attach about 20 5FU molecules per one dendrimer molecule for the G4PAMAM dendrimer and about 25 molecules for the G6PAMAM dendrimer, which gives a system yield of 16% for the fourth generation and 5% for sixth generation dendrimers. Additionally, using the QCM-D method, the adsorption efficiency and the number of drug molecules immobilized in the dendrimer structure were determined. A new aspect in our study was the determination of the change in zeta potential (ζ) induced by the immobilization of 5FU molecules on the dendrimer's outer shell and the importance of this effect in the direct contact of the carrier with cells. Cytotoxicity tests (resazurin reduction and MTS tests) showed no toxicity of dendrimers against mouse fibroblast cells (L929) and a significant decrease in cell viability in the case of four human malignant cell lines: malignant melanoma (A375), glioblastoma (SNB-19), prostate cancer (Du-145) and colon adenocarcinoma (HT-29) during incubation with PAMAM-5FU complexes. The purpose of our work was to investigate the correlation between the physicochemical properties of the carrier and active substance and the system efficiency and optimizing conditions for the formation of an efficient system based on PAMAM dendrimers as nanocarriers for 5-fluorouracil. An additional aspect was to identify potential application properties of the complexes, as demonstrated by cytotoxicity tests.

Advances in the development of biopolymeric adsorbents for the extraction of metabolites from nutraceuticals with emphasis on Solanaceae and subsequent pharmacological applications

Biopolymers are renowned for their sustainable, biodegradable, biocompatible and most of them have antitoxic characteristics. These versatile naturally derived compounds include proteins, polynucleotides (RNA and DNA) and polysaccharides. Cellulose and chitosan are the most abundant polysaccharides. Proteins and polysaccharides have been applied as emulsifiers. Additional applications of proteins and polysaccharides include cosmetics, food and wastewater treatment for adsorption of dyes and pesticides. However, more interesting applications of biopolymers are emerging, such as use in transport systems for delivery of plant derived nutraceuticals to sites of inflammation, due to its inherent ability to immobilize different biological and chemical systems. This review aims to give a summary on new trends and complement what is already known in the development of polysaccharides and proteins as adsorbents of nutraceutical compounds. The application of polysaccharides/protein containing the adsorbed Solanum derived nutraceutical compounds for drug deliveryis also reviewed.

Layer-by-Layer assembled nano-drug delivery systems for cancer treatment

Nano-drug delivery systems (NDDS) are functional drug-loaded nanocarriers widely applied in cancer therapy. Recently, layer-by-layer (LbL) assembled NDDS have been demonstrated as one of the most promising platforms in delivery of anticancer therapeutics. Here, a brief review of the LbL assembled NDDS for cancer treatment is presented. The fundamentals of the LbL assembled NDDS are first interpreted with an emphasis on the formation mechanisms. Afterwards, the tailored encapsulation of anticancer therapeutics in LbL assembled NDDS are summarized. The state-of-art targeted delivery of LbL assembled NDDS, with special attention to the elaborately control over the passive and active targeting delivery, are represented. Then the controlled release of LbL assembled NDDS with various stimulus responsiveness are systematically reviewed. Finally, conclusions and perspectives on further advancing the LbL assembled NDDS toward more powerful and versatile platforms for cancer therapy are discussed.

A Review: Uses of Chitosan in Pharmaceutical Forms

Chitosan is a natural polysaccharide widespread in nature. It has many unique and attractive properties for the pharmaceutical field: it is biodegradable, safe, hypoallergenic, biocompatible with the body, free of toxicity, with proven anticholesterolemic, antibacterial, and antimycotic action. In this review we highlighted the physical, chemical, mechanical, mucoadhesive, etc. properties of chitosan to be taken into account when obtaining various pharmaceutical forms. The methods by which the pharmaceutical forms based on chitosan are obtained are very extensive, and in this study only the most common ones were presented.

Preparation and characterization of novel anti-inflammatory biological agents based on piroxicam-loaded poly-ε-caprolactone nano-particles for sustained NSAID delivery

Piroxicam (PX), a main member of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), is mainly used orally, which causes side effects of the gastrointestinal tract. It also has systemic effects when administered intramuscularly. Intra-articular (IA) delivery and encapsulation of PX in biodegradable poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL) nanoparticles (NPs) offer potential advantages over conventional oral delivery. The purpose of this study is the development of a new type of anti-inflammatory bio-agents containing collagen and PX-loaded NPs, as an example for an oral formulation replacement, for the prolonged release of PX. In this study, the PX was encapsulated in PCL NPs (size 102.7 ± 19.37 nm, encapsulation efficiency 92.83 ± 0.4410) by oil-in-water (o/w) emulsion solvent evaporation method. Nanoparticles were then characterized for entrapment efficiency, percent yield, particle size analysis, morphological characteristics, and in vitro drug release profiles. Eventually, the NPs synthesized with collagen were conjugated so that the NPs were trapped in the collagen sponges using a cross-linker. Finally, biocompatibility tests showed that the anti-inflammatory agents made in this study had no toxic effect on the cells. Based on the results, it appears that PX-loaded PCL NPs along with collagen (PPCLnp-Coll) can be promising for IA administration based on particulate drug delivery for the treatment of arthritis.

Characterization of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticle Cross-Linked Collagen Hydrogels

Collagen is the most abundant protein in mammals and possesses high biocompatibility and low antigenicity. These biological properties render it one of the most useful biomaterials for medical applications. This study investigated the mechanical and physical characteristics of collagen hydrogels cross-linked with different ratios of polyvinylpyrrolidone capped zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZPVP). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy indicated molecular interactions between collagen fibers and ZPVP. Texture analysis revealed a significant increase in gel hardness, adhesiveness, and viscosity after cross-linking with ZPVP. Rheological measurements showed that as the ratio of ZPVP increased, stronger hydrogels were formed which in turn resulted in more sustained release of the model drug, dexamethasone sodium phosphate. We can therefore conclude that the mechanical properties of collagen hydrogels can be modified by controlling the ratio of ZPVP used for cross-linking, offering the potential to develop biocompatible sustained release drug delivery systems.

Nanotechnology-Based Biopolymeric Oral Delivery Platforms for Advanced Cancer Treatment

Routes of drug administration and their corresponding physiochemical characteristics play major roles in drug therapeutic efficiency and biological effects. Each route of delivery has favourable aspects and limitations. The oral route of delivery is the most convenient, widely accepted and safe route. However, the oral route of chemotherapeutics to date have displayed high gastric degradation, low aqueous solubility, poor formulation stability and minimum intestinal absorption. Thus, mainstream anti-cancer drugs in current formulations are not suitable as oral chemotherapeutic formulations. The use of biopolymers such as chitosan, gelatin, hyaluronic acid and polyglutamic acid, for the synthesis of oral delivery platforms, have potential to help overcome problems associated with oral delivery of chemotherapeutics. Biopolymers have favourable stimuli-responsive properties, and thus can be used to improve oral bioavailability of anti-cancer drugs. These biopolymeric formulations can protect gastric-sensitive drugs from pH degradation, target specific binding sites for targeted absorption and consequently control drug release. In this review, the use of various biopolymers as oral drug delivery systems for chemotherapeutics will be discussed.