Electrolyzed water and its application in the food industry

Comparative evaluation of alkaline ionized water and normal water on oral microbial flora: An in-vitro study

Background

Various artificial chemical agents have been evaluated over many years with respect to their antimicrobial effect in oral cavity. The gold standard for removal of plaque is usage of chlorhexidine, but it can cause alteration in taste sensation and staining of teeth. Electrolytes and oxidizing water may be useful against microbes, but its clinical application has still not been evaluated. Hence this present study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the alkaline ionized water on oral microbial flora.

Materials and Methods

Ten non-carious, un-restored and intact freshly extracted human teeth were collected and sectioned using a round bur. Each tooth was sectioned longitudinally in two parts and stored in closed sterile containers which was filled with alkaline ionized water (Group 1) and normal water (Group 2), respectively for 15 days. The microbial growth was analyzed prior to dipping in the solutions, 3 days, 7 days and 15 days. The pH of alkaline ionized water and normal water was evaluated using pH meter before placing teeth in different solutions. Results were analyzed using t-test and the level of significance was set at ≤ 0.05.

Results

No difference in bacterial colony was observed before test and after 3 days among Group 1 and Group 2, respectively. After 7 days and 15 days, statistically significant decrease in bacterial colony count was seen among Group 1 as compared to Group 2 (P ≤ 0.05).

Conclusion

It was then concluded that alkaline ionized water can be effective in reduction of oral microbial flora.

The positive contribution of ultrasound technology in muscle food key processing and its mechanism-a review

Traditional processing methods can no longer meet the demands of consumers for high-quality muscle food. As a green and non-thermal processing technology, ultrasound has the advantage of improving processing efficiency and reducing processing costs. Of these, the positive effect of power ultrasound in the processing of muscle foods is noticeable. Based on the action mechanism of ultrasound, the factors affecting the action of ultrasound are analyzed. On this basis, the effect of ultrasound technology on muscle food quality and its action mechanism and application status in processing operations (freezing-thawing, tenderization, marination, sterilization, drying, and extraction) is discussed. The transient and steady-state effects, mechanical effects, thermal effects, and chemical effects can have an impact on processing operations through complex correlations, such as improving the efficiency of mass and heat transfer. Ultrasound technology has been proven to be valuable in muscle food processing, but inappropriate ultrasound treatment can also have adverse effects on muscle foods. In the future, kinetic models are expected to be an effective tool for investigating the application effects of ultrasound in food processing. Additionally, the combination with other processing technologies can facilitate their intensive application on an industrial level to overcome the disadvantages of using ultrasound technology alone.

Development of benchmark datasets for text mining and sentiment analysis to accelerate regulatory literature review

In the field of regulatory science, reviewing literature is an essential and important step, which most of the time is conducted by manually reading hundreds of articles. Although this process is highly time-consuming and labor-intensive, most output of this process is not well transformed into machine-readable format. The limited availability of data has largely constrained the artificial intelligence (AI) system development to facilitate this literature reviewing in the regulatory process. In the past decade, AI has revolutionized the area of text mining as many deep learning approaches have been developed to search, annotate, and classify relevant documents. After the great advancement of AI algorithms, a lack of high-quality data instead of the algorithms has recently become the bottleneck of AI system development. Herein, we constructed two large benchmark datasets, Chlorine Efficacy dataset (CHE) and Chlorine Safety dataset (CHS), under a regulatory scenario that sought to assess the antiseptic efficacy and toxicity of chlorine. For each dataset, ∼10,000 scientific articles were initially collected, manually reviewed, and their relevance to the review task were labeled. To ensure high data quality, each paper was labeled by a consensus among multiple experienced reviewers. The overall relevance rate was 27.21% (2,663 of 9,788) for CHE and 7.50% (761 of 10,153) for CHS, respectively. Furthermore, the relevant articles were categorized into five subgroups based on the focus of their content. Next, we developed an attention-based classification language model using these two datasets. The proposed classification model yielded 0.857 and 0.908 of Area Under the Curve (AUC) for CHE and CHS dataset, respectively. This performance was significantly better than permutation test (p < 10E-9), demonstrating that the labeling processes were valid. To conclude, our datasets can be used as benchmark to develop AI systems, which can further facilitate the literature review process in regulatory science.

In vitro bacteriological effect of tri-beveled needle electrolysis against Staphylococcus aureus

Percutaneous needle electrolysis using tri-beveled needles with a specific protocol (5 mA applied for 25 s) has demonstrated to provoke a clinical reduction of recurrent bacterial infections in mammary fistulas. However, the bactericidal effect of needle electrolysis in this pathology remains theoretical. This in vitro study evaluated the bactericidal effect of this protocol and whether it changed when introducing small variations. Staphylococcus aureus were generated in saline solution (9 Log₁₀ CFU/mL) and treated in three different experiments including the main protocol and introducing variations in needle gauge, intensity, and total dosage, respectively. After 24 h, the viable cell count showed that the protocol had an average reduction of 5 log₁₀ CFU/ml compared to the control group. While variations in needle gauge did not modify this effect, variations in current intensity or dosage did. This study demonstrated that the bacterial effect was greater by increasing either current intensity or total dosage, and it decreased with substantial reductions of these parameters.

Application of Electrolyzed Water in the Food Industry: A Review

Electrolyzed water is a novel disinfectant and cleaner that has been widely utilized in the food sector for several years to ensure that surfaces are sterilized, and that food is safe. It is produced by the electrolysis of a dilute salt solution, and the reaction products include sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hypochlorous acid. In comparison to conventional cleaning agents, electrolyzed water is economical and eco-friendly, easy to use, and strongly effective. Electrolyzed water is also used in its acidic form, but it is non-corrosive to the human epithelium and other organic matter. The electrolyzed water can be utilized in a diverse range of foods; thus, it is an appropriate choice for synergistic microbial control in the food industry to ensure food safety and quality without damaging the organoleptic parameters of the food. The present review article highlights the latest information on the factors responsible for food spoilage and the antimicrobial potential of electrolyzed water in fresh or processed plant and animal products.

Confirmatory Virucidal Activity of Ionised Active Water S-100® on the SARS-CoV-2 Virus

Ionised active water S-100® has been proposed as an original solution for use in dermocosmetics and for the treatment of wounds such as burns and atopic dermatitis. Among the mechanisms of action that are not completely understood, an antimicrobial activity would appear to be important. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, we assessed the inactivating efficacy of this solution on SARS-CoV-2 based on the recommendations of the NF-EN-14476+A2 standard. The tests carried out demonstrated that ionised active water S-100® 40% has a virucidal activity on SARS-CoV-2 which is at least 3.1 log after a contact time of 30 seconds and 3.5 log after two minutes at 20°C under clean conditions. Assays were also performed at 4°C and 37°C, and the results obtained are identical to those obtained at 20°C. This demonstration of the virucidal effect of ionised water against SARS-CoV-2 paves the way for the development of usage as an alternative disinfectant in SARS-CoV-2 control.

Disinfection methods of dental unit waterlines contamination: a systematic review

Background. Severe contamination of dental unit waterlines was found in healthcare settings. The benefits of decontamination methods are controversial. The aim of this review was to systematically evaluate disinfection methods in contamination control of dental unit waterlines.Methods. The terms 'dental unit waterline(s) or DUWL(s) or dental unit water line(s)' were searched through PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase, Web of Science and Scopusup to 31 May 2021. The DUWLs' output water was incubated on R2A agar at 20-28 °C for 5-7 days to evaluate heterotrophic mesophilic bacteria. The risk of bias was evaluated by a modified Newcastle-Ottawa quality assessment scale.Results. Eighteen papers from the literature were included. One study indicated that water supply played a crucial role in disinfecting DUWLs. Three studies indicated that flushing decreased bacteria counts but did not meet the American CDC standard (500 c.f.u. ml^-1). All chlorine- and peroxide-containing disinfectants except sodium hypochlorite in one of 15 studies as well as three mouthrinses and citrus botanical extract achieved the standard (≤500 c.f.u. ml^-1). The included studies were of low (1/18), moderate (6/18) and high (11/18) quality.Conclusion. Independent water reservoirs are recommended for disinfecting DUWLs using distilled water. Flushing DUWLs should be combined with disinfections. Nearly all the chlorine-, chlorhexidine- and peroxide-containing disinfectants, mouthrinses and citrus botanical extract meet the standard for disinfecting DUWLs. Alkaline peroxide would lead to tube blockage in the DUWLs. Regularly changing disinfectants can reduce the risk of occurrence of disinfectant-resistant strains of microbes.

Research trends and emerging physical processing technologies in mitigation of pesticide residues on various food products

The application of pesticides enhances food production vastly, and it cannot be prevented; longer fresh produce is contaminated with health-threatening pesticides even though traditional processing methods can remove these pesticides from food surfaces to a certain extent; novel emerging technologies such as cold plasma, ultrasound, electrolyzed water, and pulsed electric field could more effectively dissipate the pesticide content in food without the release of toxic residual on the food surface. The present review focuses on applying emerging technologies to degrade pesticide residues in great utility in the food processing industries. This review also discusses the pesticide removal efficacy and its mechanism involved in these technologies. The oxidation principle in cold plasma is recently gaining more importance for the degradation of pesticide residue in the food processing industries. Analysis of the emerging physical processing methods indicated greater efficacy in eradicating pesticide residues during agriculture processing. Even though the technologies such as EO (99% reduction in dimethoate), ultrasound (98.96% for chlorpyrifos), and irradiation (99.8% for pesticide in aqueous solution) can achieve promising results in pesticide degradation level, the rate and inactivation highly depend on the type of equipment and processing parameters involved in different techniques, surface characteristics of produce, treatment conditions, and nature of the pesticide. Therefore, to effectively remove these health-threatening pesticides from food surfaces, it is necessary to know the process parameters and efficacy of the applied technology on various pesticides.

Electrolyzed Water and Its Pharmacological Activities: A Mini-Review

Electrolyzed water (EW) is a new type of cleaning and disinfecting agent obtained by means of electrolysis with a dilute sodium chloride solution. It has low cost and harm to the human body and is also friendly to the environment. The anode produces acidic electrolyzed water (AEW), which is mainly used to inhibit bacterial growth and disinfect. The cathode provides basic electrolyzed water (BEW), which is implemented to promote human health. EW is a powerful multifunctional antibacterial agent with a wide range of applications in the medicine, agriculture, and food industry. Studies in vitro and in vivo show that it has an inhibitory effect on pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Therefore, EW is used to prevent chronic diseases, while it has been found to be effective against various kinds of infectious viruses. Animal experiments and clinical trials clearly showed that it accelerates wound healing, and has positive effects in oral health care, anti-obesity, lowering blood sugar, anti-cancer and anti-infectious viral diseases. This review article summarizes the application of EW in treating bacteria and viruses, the prevention of chronic diseases, and health promotion.

Effect of Pre-Exposure to Chlorine Dioxide on the Susceptibility of Fecal Coliforms to Antibiotics

Adaptive exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of sanitizers was previously reported to offer cross-protection to bacteria against antibiotics. This study was undertaken to determine whether the pre-exposure of fecal coliforms to suboptimal concentrations of a chemical sanitizer, chlorine dioxide (ClO₂), alters their susceptibility to certain antibiotics. Fecal coliforms isolated from fresh fruit packing facilities (n = 12) were adapted in ½ or ¼ of the manufacturer-recommended concentration of ClO₂. The susceptibility of the adapted and non-adapted cells to 13 different antibiotics was determined by observing the changes in their minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs). The results showed that preadaptation to the suboptimal concentrations of ClO₂, in general, either decreased or did not change the MICs of the antibiotics against selected fecal coliform isolates, with only two exceptions; preadaptation increased the MICs of kanamycin against two of the fecal coliform isolates, and of nalidixic acid against one of the fecal coliform isolates. The results suggest that the use of ClO₂ has a relatively low risk of inducing the resistance of fecal coliforms to antibiotics.

Effect of Anolyte on S. Typhimurium and L. monocytogenes Growth in Minced Pork and Beef Cuts

In this paper, anolyte is considered as a possible disinfectant for inhibiting the growth of bacteria in meat (beef cuts and minced pork). Meat cuts were contaminated with two concentrations of L. monocytogenes and S. Typhimurium, as these are the most common meat pathogens that are closely regulated by the EU, and treated with two different concentrations of anolyte: 20% for beef cuts and 18% for minced pork. Then, the total viable count (TVC), L. monocytogenes count and S. Typhimurium count were determined. In meat cuts and minced pork, anolyte was able to reduce TVC, S. Typhimurium and L. monocytogenes counts effectively, significantly decreasing L. monocytogenes and S. Typhimurium counts after spraying and throughout 29 days of incubation at 0-4 °C. TVC was reduced after spraying and for 10 days of incubation but later increased to be the same as before spraying with anolyte. Anolyte was effective when spraying beef cuts with a 20% solution for 60 s against pathogenic bacteria L. monocytogenes and Salmonella spp. and also when using it at a concentration of 18% from the minced meat mass. Initially, anolyte significantly decreased TVC, however during the storage period (10-29 days) TVC increased but remained significantly lower compared to control. Anolyte was effective in reducing L. monocytogenes and S. Typhimurium counts throughout the study, and after 29 days of incubation, these bacteria could not be detected in the samples treated with anolyte.

Research Trends on the Application of Electrolyzed Water in Food Preservation and Sanitation

Electrolyzed water (EW) has been proposed as a novel promising sanitizer and cleaner in recent years. It is an effective antimicrobial and antibiofilm agent that has several advantages of being on the spot, environmentally friendly, cheap, and safe for human beings. Therefore, EW has been applied widely in various fields, including agriculture, food sanitation, livestock management, medical disinfection, clinical, and other fields using antibacterial technology. Currently, EW has potential significance for high-risk settings in hospitals and other clinical facilities. The research focus has been shifted toward the application of slightly acidic EW as more effective with some supplemental chemical and physical treatment methods such as ultraviolet radiations and ultrasound. This review article summarizes the possible mechanism of action and highlights the latest research studies in antimicrobial applications.

Antimicrobial Effect of Calcium Hydroxide Combined with Electrolyzed Superoxidized Solution at Neutral pH on Enterococcus faecalis Growth

Objective

To evaluate the effect of the combination of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂) and a novel electrolyzed superoxidized solution at neutral pH, known as OxOral® on Enterococcus faecalis growth in root canals.

Methods

Sixty human teeth were used, from which root canals were infected and randomly divided into the following treatment groups: saline solution, saline solution plus Ca(OH)₂, OxOral®, and OxOral® plus Ca(OH)₂.

Results

A permanent reduction in bacterial growth was observed at days 1, 6, 12, and 18 after OxOral® plus Ca(OH)₂ treatment from 4.4 ± 0.074 log₁₀ CFU/mL to 0.0 ± 0.001 log₁₀ CFU/mL. In addition, alkaline conditions maintenance was observed from application time (pH = 12.2 ± 0.033) to 18 d posttreatment (pH = 12.6 ± 0.083).

Conclusion

The combination of OxOral® and Ca(OH)₂ provides an alkaline pH and inhibits E. faecalis growth into the root canals. Our study opens the possibility for further research on the use of OxOral® in endodontic therapy.

Strong alkaline electrolyzed water efficiently inactivates SARS-CoV-2, other viruses, and Gram-negative bacteria

Air spaces and material surfaces in a pathogen-contaminated environment can often be a source of infection to humans, and disinfection has become a common intervention focused on reducing the contamination levels. In this study, we examined the efficacy of SAIW, a unique electrolyzed water with chlorine-free, high pH, high concentration of dissolved hydrogen, and low oxygen reduction potential, for the inactivation of several viruses and bacteria. Infectivity assays revealed that initial viral titers of enveloped and non-enveloped viruses, including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), influenza A virus, herpes simplex virus type 1, human coronavirus, feline calicivirus, and canine parvovirus, were reduced by 2.9- to 5.5-log10 within 30 s of SAIW exposure. Similarly, the culturability of three Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Legionella) dropped down by 1.9- to 4.9-log10 within 30 s of SAIW treatment. Mechanistically, treatment with SAIW was found to significantly decrease the binding and subsequent entry efficiencies of SARS-CoV-2 on Vero cells. Finally, we showed that this chlorine-free electrolytic ion water had no acute inhalation toxicity in mice, demonstrating that SAIW holds promise for a safer antiviral and antibacterial disinfectant.

Galvanic current dosage and bacterial concentration are determinants of the bactericidal effect of percutaneous needle electrolysis: an in vitro study

Percutaneous needle electrolysis (PNE) is a physiotherapy technique that has been shown to be effective in different pathologies such as tendinopathies or mammary fistula. For many years, theoretical bactericidal and germicidal effects have been attributed to this type of galvanic currents, partly explained by the changes in pH that it generates. However, these effects have not yet been demonstrated. The aim of this study was to evaluate the bactericidal effect and the changes in pH caused by PNE. S. aureus were prepared in two different solutions (TSB and saline solution) and in different concentrations (from 9 to 6 Log₁₀ CFU/mL). Bacteria were treated with three experimental PNE doses to assess bacterial death levels and the changes caused to the pH of the medium. The viable cell count showed that all experimental PNE doses had a bactericidal effect against a high concentration (9 Log₁₀ CFU/mL) of S. aureus in saline solution (p < 0.001). Furthermore, we found that when the concentration of bacteria decreased, a lower dose of galvanic current generated the same effect as a higher dose. Changes in pH were registered only in experiments performed with saline solution. PNE had a bactericidal effect against S. aureus and the level of this effect was mainly modulated by the solution, the bacterial concentration and the dose. Changes affecting pH were modulated by the type of solution and there was no relationship between this and bacterial death.

Kinetic Modeling of Slightly Acidic Electrolyzed Water Decay Characteristics in Fresh Cabbage Disinfection Against Human Norovirus

To consistently disinfect fresh vegetables efficiently, the decay of disinfectants such as chlorine, electrolyzed oxidizing water (EOW), ozonated water, and plasma-activated water during the disinfection maintenance stage needs to be understood. The aim of our study was to evaluate the changes in the inactivation kinetics of slightly acidic electrolyzed water (SAEW) against human norovirus (HuNoV), based on the cabbage-to-SAEW ratio. After disinfection of fresh cabbage with disinfected SAEW solution, SAEW samples were collected and analyzed for physicochemical properties such as pH, available chlorine concentrations (ACCs), and oxidation-reduction potential (ORP). SAEW virucidal effects were evaluated. We confirmed the decay of post-disinfection SAEW solution and demonstrated the different patterns of the decay kinetic model for HuNoV GI.6 and GII.4. In addition, the goodness of fit of the tested models based on a lower Akaike information criterion, root-mean-square error (RMSE), and residual sum of squares (RSS) was close to zero. In particular, the change in both the HuNoV GI.6 and GII.4 inactivation exhibited a strong correlation with the changes in the ACC of post-disinfection SAEW. These findings demonstrate that physicochemical parameters of SAEW play a key role in influencing the kinetic behavior of changes in the disinfection efficiency of SAEW during the disinfection process. Therefore, to optimize the efficiency of SAEW, it is necessary to optimize the produce-to-SAEW ratio in future studies.

Microbicidal effect and storage stability of neutral HOCl-containing aqueous gels with different thickening/gelling agents

Electrolyzed waters, containing mainly hypochlorous acid, are used in dental practice because of their high microbicidal effect. For wider use, three neutral electrolyzed water-based gels, namely, HOCl-containing aqueous gels were prepared with a thickening/gelling agent in this study. We evaluated their microbicidal effects against four strains and storage stabilities indicated by available chlorine concentration. Immediately after preparation, all gels (70 ppm) could completely remove microbes by a 3-min treatment. The gel prepared with xanthan gum remarkably reduced its available chlorine concentration even under shaded and refrigerated storage conditions, failing to maintain its microbicidal effect following 1-day storage, whereas other gels, prepared with carboxyvinyl polymer or agar, maintained effective concentration (>20 ppm), with high microbicidal effects following 9-day and 21-day storage, respectively. Neutral electrolyzed water-based gels might be useful to remove oral microbes. Based on our results, agar is the most suitable thickening/gelling agent from the viewpoint of storage stability.

Electrolyzed Water Generated On-Site as a Promising Disinfectant in the Dental Office During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Electrolyzed water is a safe, broad-spectrum bactericidal and viricidal agent, which can be used as a potent and effective alternative disinfectant in case of supply shortages. This report describes the on-site production of slightly acidic electrolyzed water (EW) from diluted salt solution and vinegar at a dental office using a portable EW generator unit. Such measures can ensure the safe continuity of important dental service provision for our patients during the coronavirus disease 2019 (CoVID-19) pandemic.

Evaluating the potential of electrolysed water for the disinfection of citrus fruit in packinghouses

BACKGROUND

The largest and most profitable market for citrus is the production of fresh fruit. Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri is a Gram-negative plant pathogen and the etiological agent of citrus canker, one of the major threats to citrus production worldwide. In the early stages of infection, X. citri can attach to plant surfaces by means of biofilms. Biofilm is considered an essential virulence factor, which helps tissue colonization in plants. Thus, sanitization of citrus fruit is mandatory in packinghouses before any logistic operation as packing and shipment to the market. The aim of this study was to evaluate electrolysed water (EW) as a sanitizer for the disinfection of citrus fruit in packinghouses.

RESULTS

Using a protocol to monitor cell respiration we show that EW, obtained after 8 and 9 min of electrolysis, sufficed to kill X. citri when applied at a concentration of 500 μL mL^-1 . Furthermore, microscopy analysis, combined with time-response growth curves, confirmed that EW affects the bacterial cytoplasmatic membrane and it leads to cell death in the first few minutes of contact. Pathogenicity tests using limes to simulate packinghouse treatment showed that EW, produced with 9 min of electrolysis, was a very effective sanitizer capable of eliminating X. citri from contaminated fruit.

CONCLUSION

It was possible to conclude that EW is significantly effective as sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) at 200 ppm. Therefore, EW could be an alternative for citrus sanitization in packinghouses. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effects of ultrasound-assisted basic electrolyzed water (BEW) extraction on structural and functional properties of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) proteins

A novel protein extraction method of ultrasound-assisted basic electrolyzed water (BEW) was proposed, and its effects on the structural and functional properties of Antarctic krill proteins were investigated. Results showed that BEW reduced 30.9% (w/w) NaOH consumption for the extraction of krill proteins, and its negative redox potential (-800 ~ -900 mV) protected the active groups (carbonyl, free sulfhydryl, etc.) of the proteins from oxidation compared to deionized water (DW). Moreover, the ultrasound-assisted BEW increased the extraction yield (9.4%), improved the solubility (8.5%), reduced the particle size (57 nm), favored the transition of α-helix and β-turn to β-sheet, promoted the surface hydrophobicity and disulfide bonds formation of krill proteins when compared to BEW without ultrasound. These changes contributed to the enhanced foam capacity, foam stability and emulsifying capacity of the krill proteins. Notably, all the physicochemical, structural and functional properties of the krill proteins were comparable to those extracted by the traditional ultrasound-assisted DW. This study suggests that the ultrasound-assisted BEW can be a potential candidate to extract proteins, especially offering an alternative way to produce marine proteins with high nutritional quality.

Electrolyzed Oxidizing Water and Its Applications as Sanitation and Cleaning Agent

Electrolyzed oxidizing water (EOW) is one of the promising novel antimicrobial agents that have recently been proposed as the alternative to conventional decontamination methods such as heat and chemical sanitizers. Acidic EOW with pH ranging from 2 to 5 is regarded most applicable in the antimicrobial treatment of vegetables and meats. Neutral and alkaline electrolyzed water have also been explored in few studies for their applications in the food industry. Neutral electrolyzed water is proposed to solve the problems related to the storage and corrosion effect of acidic EOW. Recently, the research focus has been shifted toward the application of slightly acidic EOW as more effective with some supplemental physical and chemical treatment methods such as ultrasound and UV radiations. The different applications of electrolyzed water range from drinking water and wastewater to food, utensil, and hard surfaces. The recent studies also conclude that electrolyzed water is more effective in suspensions as compared with the food surfaces where longer retention times are required. The commercialization of EOW instruments is not adopted frequently in many countries due to the potential corrosion problems associated with acidic electrolyzed water. This review article summarizes the EOW types and possible mechanism of action as well as highlights the most recent research studies in the field of antimicrobial applications and cleaning. Electrolyzed water can replace conventional chemical decontamination methods in the industry and household. However, more research is needed to know its actual mechanism of antimicrobial action along with the primary concerns related to EOW in the processing of different food products.

Neutral electrolyzed oxidizing water is effective for pre-harvest decontamination of fresh produce

Pre-harvest sanitization of irrigation water has potential for reducing pathogen contamination of fresh produce. We compared the sanitizing effects of irrigation water containing neutral electrolyzed oxidizing water (EOW) or sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) on pre-harvest lettuce and baby spinach leaves artificially contaminated with a mixture of Escherichia coli, Salmonella Enteritidis and Listeria innocua (~1 × 108 colony-forming units/mL each resuspended in water containing 100 mg/L dissolved organic carbon, simulating a splash-back scenario from contaminated soil/manure). The microbial load and leaf quality were assessed over 7 days, and post-harvest shelf life evaluated for 10 days. Irrigation with water containing EOW or NaClO at 50 mg/L free chlorine significantly reduced the inoculated bacterial load by ≥ 1.5 log10, whereas tap water irrigation reduced the inoculated bacterial load by an average of 0.5 log10, when compared with untreated leaves. There were no visual effects of EOW or tap water irrigation on baby spinach or lettuce leaf surfaces pre- or post-harvest, whereas there were obvious negative effects of NaClO irrigation on leaf appearance for both plants, including severe necrotic zones and yellowing/browning of leaves. Therefore, EOW could serve as a viable alternative to chemical-based sanitizers for pre-harvest disinfection of minimally processed vegetables.

Non-Thermal Methods for Ensuring the Microbiological Quality and Safety of Seafood

A literature search and systematic review were conducted to present and discuss the most recent research studies for the past twenty years on the application of non-thermal methods for ensuring the microbiological safety and quality of fish and seafood. This review presents the principles and reveals the potential benefits of high hydrostatic pressure processing (HHP), ultrasounds (US), non-thermal atmospheric plasma (NTAP), pulsed electric fields (PEF), and electrolyzed water (EW) as alternative methods to conventional heat treatments. Some of these methods have already been adopted by the seafood industry, while others show promising results in inactivating microbial contaminants or spoilage bacteria from solid or liquid seafood products without affecting the biochemical or sensory quality. The main applications and mechanisms of action for each emerging technology are being discussed. Each of these technologies has a specific mode of microbial inactivation and a specific range of use. Thus, their knowledge is important to design a practical application plan focusing on producing safer, qualitative seafood products with added value following today’s consumers’ needs.

New Clinical Applications of Electrolyzed Water: A Review

As the situation of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is still deteriorating, there has been a huge increase in the demand and use of disinfectants. Electrolyzed water (EW), as a novel broad-spectrum disinfectant and cleaner, has been widely used for several years. EW can be produced in an electrolysis chamber which contains dilute salt and tap water. It is an effective antimicrobial and antibiofilm agent, with several advantages such as on-the-spot, cheap, environmentally friendly and safe for human beings. Therefore, EW holds potential significance for high-risk settings in hospitals and other clinical facilities. EW can also be applied for wound healing, advanced tissue care, and dental clinics. The present review article highlights the latest developments and new perspectives of EW, especially in clinical fields. Furthermore, the main action modes of antibiofilm and antimicrobial will be summarized.

Studies on the efficacy of electrolysed oxidising water to control Aspergillus carbonarius and ochratoxin A contamination on grape

Ochratoxin A (OTA) occurrence in grapes is caused by black Aspergilli (Aspergillus carbonarius followed by A. niger) vineyards contamination. It depends on climatic conditions, geographical regions, damage by insects, and grape varieties. Good agricultural practices, pesticides, and fungicides seem adequate to manage the problem during low OTA risk vintages, but the development of new strategies is always encouraged, especially when an extremely favourable condition occurs in the vineyard. Electrolysed oxidising water (EOW) has become an interesting alternative to chemicals in agriculture, mainly during the post-harvest phase. This study tested the fungicidal efficacy of EOW generated by potassium chloride, in vitro, on black Aspergilli conidia, and detached grape berries infected by A. carbonarius. Then, during field trials on Primitivo cv vineyard treated with EOW, A. carbonarius contamination, and OTA levels were compared with Switch® fungicide treatment (0.8 g/l). Black Aspergilli conidia were killed on plate assay after 2 min of treatment by EOW containing >0.4 g/l of active chlorine. EOW (0.6 g/l active chlorine) treatment reduced the rate of A. carbonarius infections in vitro of about 87-92% on detached berries and, more than half in the field trials, although Switch® showed better performance. A significant reduction in the OTA concentration was observed for the EOW and Switch® treatments in vitro (92% and 96%, respectively), while in the field trials, although the average decrease in OTA was recorded in the treated grapes, it was not statistically significant. These results highlighted that EOW could be considered effective, as a substitute for fungicides, to reduce the contamination of A. carbonarius and OTA on grapes.

Disinfection efficiency of hospital infectious disease wards with chlorine dioxide and hypochlorous acid

The disinfection efficiencies of two chemical disinfectants, chlorine dioxide and weak acid hypochlorous water (WAHW), were examined in the soiled room and dishwashing room of a hospital infectious disease ward in Taiwan. The investigations were conducted in two seasons, namely winter and summer, in order to examine the correlation between the bioaerosol concentration and the environmental factors. In addition, a single-daily disinfection mode (SM) and a twice-daily disinfection mode (TM) were applied in this study. The results showed that the bacteria and fungi colony counts were strongly correlated with the temperature. Both disinfectants reduced the bacteria and fungi concentrations in the considered rooms. However, of the two disinfectants, the ClO₂ showed a stronger disinfection effect than the WAHW. It means that when using ClO₂ as the disinfectant, the disinfection efficiency of the TM treatment mode is significantly better than that of the SM treatment mode. But, when using WAHW as the disinfectant, no significant difference is found between the disinfection efficiencies of the two methods. Overall, the results showed that the application of ClO₂ twice daily provided the most effective means of satisfying the Taiwan EPA guidelines for the indoor air quality of hospital medical wards.

Evaluation of the effect of neutral electrolyzed water and peroxyacetic acid alone and in combination on microbiological, chemical, and sensory characteristics of poultry meat during refrigeration storage

The objectives of this study were to evaluate the efficacy of near-neutral electrolyzed water (NEW) (100 and 200 µg/ml), peroxyacetic acid (PAA) (200 and 400 µg/ml), and their combination (NEW 100 µg/ml + PAA 200 µg/ml) on microbial quality, pH, TBARS value, and sensory quality of fresh chicken breast meat dipped into the solutions for 10 min at room temperature. Meat samples were tested immediately after treatments and on days 2, 4, and 6 of storage at 4℃. All treatments were effective in reducing microbial populations throughout the storage (P < 0.05), with combined treatment showing the strongest antimicrobial activity. On the sixth day of storage, the aerobic plate counts, psychrophilic plate count, Enterobacteriaceae, lactic acid bacteria, and Pseudomonas counts in the NEW 100 µg/ml + PAA 200 µg/ml group were 1.33, 1.40, 1.45, 1.01, and 1.45 log CFU/g, respectively, which was lower than the control group (P < 0.05). In all treatments, the pH value of meat samples increased with storage time. During 6 days of storage, PAA400 group had the lowest increase in pH value (P < 0.05). On day 6, the combined treatment and PAA 400 µg/ml had the lowest lipid oxidation (P < 0.05). On day 6, the NEW100 + PAA200 group obtained the highest score in sensory attributes compared to other treatment groups (P < 0.05). According to the microbial and chemical analysis, the combined treatment of NEW and PAA can be a promising method to extend the shelf life of chicken by about 2 days at 4℃. Also, these compounds do not contain any harmful residues in chicken breast meat and their use is recommended in decontamination of poultry meat.

Top-Down Characterization of an Antimicrobial Sanitizer, Leading From Quenchers of Efficacy to Mode of Action

We developed a top-down strategy to characterize an antimicrobial, oxidizing sanitizer, which has diverse proposed applications including surface-sanitization of fresh foods, and with benefits for water resilience. The strategy involved finding quenchers of antimicrobial activity then antimicrobial mode of action, by identifying key chemical reaction partners starting from complex matrices, narrowing down reactivity to specific organic molecules within cells. The sanitizer electrolyzed-water (EW) retained partial fungicidal activity against the food-spoilage fungus Aspergillus niger at high levels of added soils (30–750 mg mL^–1), commonly associated with harvested produce. Soil with high organic load (98 mg g^–1) gave stronger EW inactivation. Marked inactivation by a complex organics mix (YEPD medium) was linked to its protein-rich components. Addition of pure proteins or amino acids (≤1 mg mL^–1) fully suppressed EW activity. Mechanism was interrogated further with the yeast model, corroborating marked suppression of EW action by the amino acid methionine. Pre-culture with methionine increased resistance to EW, sodium hypochlorite, or chlorine-free ozonated water. Overexpression of methionine sulfoxide reductases (which reduce oxidized methionine) protected against EW. Fluoroprobe-based analyses indicated that methionine and cysteine inactivate free chlorine species in EW. Intracellular methionine oxidation can disturb cellular FeS-clusters and we showed that EW treatment impairs FeS-enzyme activity. The study establishes the value of a top-down approach for multi-level characterization of sanitizer efficacy and action. The results reveal proteins and amino acids as key quenchers of EW activity and, among the amino acids, the importance of methionine oxidation and FeS-cluster damage for antimicrobial mode-of-action.

Fight Against COVID-19: ARCI's Technologies for Disinfection

COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) is causing a huge concern to the global population due to its highly contagious properties. The SARS-CoV-2 is a new variant in the coronavirus family. The world is focussing on several methods to battle against this novel corona virus, including control of its spread. In this context, ARCI has quickly made efforts to develop disinfection systems including a UVC-based disinfection trolley, honeycomb air heater and a fogging chamber using UVC germicidal lamps, dry heat sterilization and HOCl-based chemical disinfectant to provide rapid and effective inactivation of microorganisms causing the pandemic. These systems have been successfully deployed at different hospitals for their validation.

Evaluation of the simulator with automatic irrigation control system designed for countermeasures of internal contamination in dental unit water lines

The prevention of nosocomial infections is an imperative task. The dental chair unit (DCU) is an indispensable device used in dental treatment. However, it is known that the dental unit water line (DUWL) can become contaminated with biofilm, consisting mainly of heterotrophic bacteria (HB). Recently, the International Organization for Standardization specified the methods for testing DUWL contamination management. On these grounds, a simulator reproducing DUWL was prepared to standardize the examination method of the DUWL contamination.

Objectives

To evaluate the reproducibility of the DUWL simulator, monitor the DUWL contamination states, and test the efficacy of a commercial decontaminant for DUWL.

Methods

The DUWL simulator was assembled by a DCU manufacturing company. The simulator's DUWL was filled with tap water (TW), and left for approximately one year. Neutral electrolyzed water (NEW) was used as a decontaminant for DUWL. Both TW and NEW were passed through DUWL in a timely manner simulating daily dental treatment. Water was sampled from the air turbine hand piece weekly for 4 weeks and used for HB culture. Contamination status was evaluated by measuring bacterial adenosine triphosphate release and by culturing on Reasoner's 2A medium.

Results

The DUWL released contaminated water had a bacterial count of over 6 × 10⁴ cfu/mL. After passing NEW through DUWL for 1 week, the count drastically decreased to its basal level and remained steady for 4 weeks. However, TW showed no effect on DUWL decontamination throughout the examination periods.

Conclusions

The DUWL simulator could be useful to examine the efficacy of the decontaminant for DUWL and development of new methods in DUWL contamination management.

Antifungal efficacy of sanitizers and electrolyzed waters against toxigenic Aspergillus

The presence of mycotoxin-producing fungi in food production environments is a cause of concern since they can contaminate food products, synthesizing toxic compounds in later steps. To avoid this, an effective hygiene and sanitation process of the environment and equipment should be adopted, using sanitizing agents with adequate antifungal efficacy. This work evaluated the effectiveness of different chemical sanitizers: benzalkonium chloride (0.3%, 1.2%, 2%), biguanide (2%, 3.5%, 5%), iodine (0.2%, 0.6%, 1%), peracetic acid (0.3%, 0.6%, 1%), sodium hypochlorite (0.5%, 0.75%, 1%), besides a new non-polluting technology, the electrolyzed water, both the acid in the chlorine concentrations of 60, 85 and 121 ppm and the respective basic electrolyzed water formed against strains of toxigenic Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus nomius, Aspergillus parasiticus, Aspergillus carbonarius, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus ochraceus and Aspergillus westerdijkiae through the methodology recommended by the European Committee for Standardization. Benzalkonium chloride and iodine were the most effective sanitizers to eliminate Aspergillus from the Flavi and Nigri section. Peracetic acid showed the best elimination of the growth of Aspergillus from Circumdati section. Sodium hypochlorite, biguanide, and electrolyzed water agents were the least effective, reducing less than 3 log from initial control, not being the most suitable agents for the control of toxigenic fungi in food industries.

Sustainable Electroisomerization of Lactose into Lactulose and Comparison with the Chemical Isomerization at Equivalent Solution Alkalinity

The demand of lactulose production is increasing tremendously because of its bifidogenic (prebiotic) functionality. Therefore, the isomerization of lactose to synthesize lactulose through electroactivation (EA) technology is of great interest nowadays. However, lactulose production through electroisomerization is affected by several operational and experimental conditions, and the process needs to be optimized. In this context, the EA technique was applied to isomerize lactose into lactulose in an EA reactor modulated by anion and cation exchange membranes. The effect of lactose concentrations (5, 10, 15, and 20%), applied electric fields (300, 600, and 900 mA), and processing time (0-60 min) on lactose electroisomerization rate (lactulose formation) and coproduct (glucose, galactose, and fructose) formation has been investigated. The effect of different physicochemical parameters such as pH, alkalinity, temperature, ion migration, and oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) on the conversion of lactose into lactulose was correlated with the lactulose formation to understand the involved process mechanism of action. The conversion of lactose into lactulose was lactose-concentration-, electric-current-, and EA-time-dependent and reached the highest lactulose yield of 38% at 40 min using a 900 mA current intensity in a 10% lactose solution. The results were then compared to conventional chemical isomerization maintaining similar alkaline conditions at ambient temperature (22 ± 2 °C). A higher yield of lactulose was achieved in the EA process within a short reaction time compared to that of the chemical isomerization. The outcome of this study suggests that EA is a promising technique for the enhanced production of lactulose from lactose.

Antimicrobial and Anti-Biofilm Effect of an Electrolyzed Superoxidized Solution at Neutral-pH against Helicobacter pylori

The presence of Helicobacter pylori in the oral cavity has been associated to the failure of antimicrobial therapy in patients with gastrointestinal infection and the development of oral diseases. However, it has been reported that the maintenance of good oral hygiene can improve the therapeutic success rates, where the use of mouthwashes with anti-Helicobacter activity would help to achieve it. The aim was to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of OxOral® mouthwash against H. pylori and its effect on biofilm formation. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of OxOral® (pH = 6.4–7.5, ORP = 650–900 mV) against H. pylori was calculated testing serial dilutions 0.117–15 ppm against 1 × 10⁸ CFU/mL of H. pylori (ATCC® 700824™) by broth microdilution method using 96‐well plates. The H. pylori biofilm formation was determined by the optical density measurement at 600 nm from coverslips stained with 0.1% crystal violet. The gene expression of ureA, luxS, flaA, omp18, and lpxD were analyzed by RT‐qPCR. OxOral® cytotoxicity was evaluated in a human gingival fibroblast cell line by MTT assay. MIC was of 3.75 ppm, with 99.7 ± 7.7% bacterial growth inhibition. In the negative control, the biofilm formation was observed, whereas when bacteria were treated with OxOral® at 0.234, 0.469, and 0.938 ppm, an inhibition of 35.5 ± 0.9%, 89.1 ± 1.2%, and 99.9 ± 5.5% were obtained, respectively. The gene expression analysis showed that flaA, omp18, and lpxD genes were down‐regulated with OxOral® compared with control (p < 0.05). Low cytotoxicity of 16.5 ± 7.6% was observed at the highest dose (15 ppm); no significant differences were observed from 15 to 0.469 ppm compared to the control of untreated cells (p > 0.05). Our results reveal an important anti-Helicobacter activity of OxOral® and open the possibility of its therapeutic use new studies, which would increase the success rate of conventional therapies against H. pylori.

Comparative antibacterial activities of neutral electrolyzed oxidizing water and other chlorine-based sanitizers

There is increasing demand for safe and effective sanitizers for irrigation water disinfection to prevent transmission of foodborne pathogens to fresh produce. Here we compared the efficacy of pH-neutral electrolyzed oxidizing water (EOW), sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) and chlorine dioxide (ClO2) against single and mixed populations of E. coli, Listeria and Salmonella under a range of pH and organic matter content. EOW treatment of the mixed bacterial suspension resulted in a dose-dependent (<1 mg/L free chlorine), rapid (<2 min) and effective (4-6 Log10) reduction of the microbial load in water devoid of organic matter under the range of pH conditions tested (pH, 6.0, 7.0, 8.4 and 9.2). The efficacy of EOW containing 5 mg/L free chlorine was unaffected by increasing organic matter, and compared favourably with equivalent concentrations of NaClO and ClO2. EOW at 20 mg/L free chlorine was more effective than NaClO and ClO2 in reducing bacterial populations in the presence of high (20-100 mg/L) dissolved organic carbon, and no regrowth or metabolic activity was observed for EOW-treated bacteria at this concentration upon reculturing in rich media. Thus, EOW is as effective or more effective than other common chlorine-based sanitizers for pathogen reduction in contaminated water. EOW's other characteristics, such as neutral pH and ease of handling, indicate its suitability for fresh produce sanitation.

Influence of the acidity of electrolyzed water on the microhardness of inner layer dentin

Background/purpose

Electrolyzed water has been identified as an effective disinfectant that could represent as an alternative to sodium hypochlorite. Unfortunately, it remains unclear whether the texture or physical properties of dentin are affected by the application of electrolyzed water of different acidities. This study was aimed to assess the influence of electrolyzed waters with differing pHs on the demineralizing of inner dentin.

Materials and methods

The coronal superficial dentin of 20 human molars was exposed and further bisected into two pieces perpendicular to the dentin surface. The samples were immersed in strongly acidic electrolyzed water (AW group), neutral electrolyzed water (NW group), 5% sodium hypochlorite (positive control, NL group), or deionized water (negative control, DW group). Microhardness of the inner layer dentin was measured at a depth of 25 and 50 μm beneath the superficial surface layer every 5 up to 60 min.

Results

At a depth of 25 μm, microhardness decreased with increasing immersion time in all but the DW group. The AW group exhibited a decreasing trend from the first 5 min that became significant after 35 min of immersion and was the most rapid decrease in the four groups. The rate of decline in the NW group was low and similar to that of the NL group. Both NW and NL groups exhibited significantly less demineralization than the AW group after 15 min of immersion. No significant microhardness change was found at a depth of 50 μm in any of the samples.

Conclusion

AW produces a more pronounced softening of dentin than NW at a depth of 25 μm.

Structural, Physicochemical, and Functional Properties of Electrolyzed Cassava Starch

Cassava starch was oxidized using the electrolysis system. Sodium chloride was added to this system at various concentrations from 0.5 to 5.0 % (w/v). The whiteness of modified starches proportionally increased based on the NaCl concentration and human eyes could recognize the difference of color. Under treatment, dents occurred on the surface of starch granule. Concentration of carbonyl and carboxyl groups was increased compared to native starch. Based on X-ray diffraction pattern, oxidized starch kept its A-type. Besides, the ratios of alpha-helix/amorphous regions remained indicating oxidation reaction mainly subjected on amorphous region. Intrinsic viscosity was used to indirectly calculate the average molecular weight of sample. Furthermore, results showed that average molecular weight was significantly reduced (from 2.09-fold to 13.22-fold) based on the reacting NaCl concentration. The increase of NaCl content related to the increase of retrogradation of treated starches. At various temperatures (30-95°C), swelling factor and clarity reflected negative and positive correlations to NaCl concentration.