Proteolytic cleavages of MET: the divide-and-conquer strategy of a receptor tyrosine kinase

Molecular roles in membrane receptor signaling pathways and cascade reactions in chondrocytes: a review

Articular cartilage (AC) is a specialized connective tissue with unique biological and mechanical properties, which depends on the biological effects of each resident chondrocyte and its surrounding extracellular matrix (ECM) to form a unit that operates in a constant and balanced feedback loop. The surface membrane receptors of chondrocytes play a crucial role in the feedback balance of this biological unit. Various biological signals outside chondrocytes, such as water-soluble chemical signal molecules and mechanical signals, are unable to directly enter the cell and must first bind to the plasma membrane receptors to induce changes in the level and activity of intracellular signal transduction molecules. These changes then transmit through signaling cascade pathways into the nucleus, changing the cell phenotype, and producing physiological or pathological changes. Specific chemical and mechanical signals break the feedback balance of cartilage tissue units through membrane receptors. In the ECM environment, the molecular actions of chondrocyte membrane receptors in response to these specific signals, along with associated ion channel receptors, collectively regulate the biological effects of chondrocytes. This leads to decreased chondrocyte survival and an imbalance in ECM regulation, ultimately disrupting the tissue's molecular framework and physiological feedback mechanisms, and resulting in pathological changes in cartilage tissue. To provide insights into addressing the complexities associated with cartilage tissue injury and repair engineering, this review provides a comprehensive overview of the molecular mechanisms and biological implications of chondrocyte membrane receptor-mediated signal transduction, including G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), enzyme-linked receptors (tyrosine kinase receptors (TKRs)), and integrin receptors.

Repurposing of c-MET Inhibitor Tivantinib Inhibits Pediatric Neuroblastoma Cellular Growth

Background: Dysregulation of receptor tyrosine kinase c-MET is known to promote tumor development by stimulating oncogenic signaling pathways in different cancers, including pediatric neuroblastoma (NB). NB is an extracranial solid pediatric cancer that accounts for almost 15% of all pediatric cancer-related deaths, with less than a 50% long-term survival rate. Results: In this study, we analyzed a large cohort of primary NB patient data and revealed that high MET expression strongly correlates with poor overall survival, disease progression, relapse, and high MYCN levels in NB patients. To determine the effects of c-MET in NB, we repurposed a small molecule inhibitor, tivantinib, and found that c-MET inhibition significantly inhibits NB cellular growth. Tivantinib significantly blocks NB cell proliferation and 3D spheroid tumor formation and growth in different MYCN-amplified and MYCN-non-amplified NB cell lines. Furthermore, tivantinib blocks the cell cycle at the G2/M phase transition and induces apoptosis in different NB cell lines. As expected, c-MET inhibition by tivantinib inhibits the expression of multiple genes in PI3K, STAT, and Ras cell signaling pathways. Conclusions: Overall, our data indicate that c-MET directly regulates NB growth and 3D spheroid growth, and c-MET inhibition by tivantinib may be an effective therapeutic approach for high-risk NB. Further developing c-MET targeted therapeutic approaches and combining them with current therapies may pave the way for effectively translating novel therapies for NB and other c-MET-driven cancers.

Tigilanol Tiglate-Induced Changes in Secretome Profiles Alter C-Met Phosphorylation and Cell Surface Protein Expression in H357 Head and Neck Cancer Cells

Tigilanol tiglate (TT, also known as EBC-46) is a novel, plant-derived diterpene ester possessing anticancer and wound-healing properties. Here, we show that TT-evoked PKC-dependent S985 phosphorylation of the tyrosine kinase MET leads to subsequent degradation of tyrosine phosphorylated p-Y1003 and p-Y1234/5 MET species. PKC inhibition with BIM-1 blocked S985 phosphorylation of MET and led to MET cell surface accumulation. Treatment with metalloproteinase inhibitors prevented MET-ECD release into cell culture media, which was also blocked by PKC inhibitors. Furthermore, unbiased secretome analysis, performed using TMT-technology, identified additional targets of TT-dependent release of cell surface proteins from H357 head and neck cancer cells. We confirm that the MET co-signalling receptor syndecan-1 was cleaved from the cell surface in response to TT treatment. This was accompanied by rapid cleavage of the cellular junction adhesion protein Nectin-1 and the nerve growth factor receptor NGFRp75/TNFR16. These findings, that TT is a novel negative regulator of protumorigenic c-MET and NGFRp75/TNFR16 signalling, as well as regulating Nectin-1-mediated cell adhesion, further contribute to our understanding of the mode of action and efficacy of TT in the treatment of solid tumours.

Recording and classifying MET receptor mutations in cancers

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) directed against MET have been recently approved to treat advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) harbouring activating MET mutations. This success is the consequence of a long characterization of MET mutations in cancers, which we propose to outline in this review. MET, a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK), displays in a broad panel of cancers many deregulations liable to promote tumour progression. The first MET mutation was discovered in 1997, in hereditary papillary renal cancer (HPRC), providing the first direct link between MET mutations and cancer development. As in other RTKs, these mutations are located in the kinase domain, leading in most cases to ligand-independent MET activation. In 2014, novel MET mutations were identified in several advanced cancers, including lung cancers. These mutations alter splice sites of exon 14, causing in-frame exon 14 skipping and deletion of a regulatory domain. Because these mutations are not located in the kinase domain, they are original and their mode of action has yet to be fully elucidated. Less than five years after the discovery of such mutations, the efficacy of a MET TKI was evidenced in NSCLC patients displaying MET exon 14 skipping. Yet its use led to a resistance mechanism involving acquisition of novel and already characterized MET mutations. Furthermore, novel somatic MET mutations are constantly being discovered. The challenge is no longer to identify them but to characterize them in order to predict their transforming activity and their sensitivity or resistance to MET TKIs, in order to adapt treatment.

Loss of LGR5 through Therapy-induced Downregulation or Gene Ablation Is Associated with Resistance and Enhanced MET-STAT3 Signaling in Colorectal Cancer Cells

Leucine-rich repeat-containing, G protein-coupled receptor 5 (LGR5) is highly expressed in colorectal cancer and cancer stem cells (CSCs) that play important roles in tumor initiation, progression, and metastasis. Loss of LGR5 has been shown to enhance therapy resistance. However, the molecular mechanisms that mediate this resistance remain elusive. In this study, we demonstrate conversion of LGR5+ colorectal cancer cells to an LGR5- state in response to chemotherapy, LGR5- targeted antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs), or LGR5 gene ablation led to activation of STAT3. Further investigation revealed increased STAT3 activation occurred as a result of increased mesenchymal epithelial transition (MET) factor receptor activity. LGR5 overexpression decreased MET-STAT3 activity and sensitized colorectal cancer cells to therapy. STAT3 inhibition suppressed MET phosphorylation, while constitutively active STAT3 reduced LGR5 levels and increased MET activity, suggesting a potential feedback mechanism. Combination treatment of MET-STAT3 inhibitors with irinotecan or antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) substantiated synergistic effects in colorectal cancer cells and tumor organoids. In colorectal cancer xenografts, STAT3 inhibition combined with irinotecan enhanced tumor growth suppression and prolonged survival. These findings suggest a mechanism by which drug-resistant LGR5- colorectal cancer cells acquire a survival advantage through activation of MET-STAT3 and provide rationale for new treatment strategies to target colorectal cancer.

Mesenchymal-epithelial Transition Factor Regulates Monocyte Function during Mycobacterial Infection via Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase

OBJECTIVE

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the causative agent of tuberculosis (TB), causes an estimated 1.6 million human deaths annually, but the pathogenesis of TB remains unclear. Immunity plays a critical role in the onset and outcome of TB. This study aimed to uncover the roles of innate and adaptive immunity in TB.

METHODS

The gene expression profiles generated by RNA sequencing from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) stimulated with or without Mtb strain H37Rv antigens were analyzed. A total of 973 differentially expressed mRNAs were identified.

RESULTS

The differentially expressed genes were enriched in innate immunity signaling functions. The mesenchymal-epithelial transition factor (MET) gene was significantly upregulated in CD14+ monocytes. A MET inhibitor improved the uptake of the BCG strain by monocytes and macrophages as well as inhibited the expression of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO). The expression of IDO was increased in PBMCs stimulated with Mtb antigens, and the IDO inhibitor promoted the expression of CD40, CD83, and CD86.

CONCLUSION

Our results might provide clues regarding the immunomodulatory mechanisms used by Mtb to evade the host defense system.

The Occurrence of MET Ectodomain Shedding in Oral Cancer and Its Potential Impact on the Use of Targeted Therapies

Simple Summary

Head and neck cancer is the sixth most common cancer type worldwide, comprising tumors of the upper aero/digestive tract. Approximately 50% of these cancers originate in the oral cavity. Depending on disease stage, oral cancer patients are treated with single-modality surgery, or in combination with radiotherapy with or without chemotherapy. Despite advances in these modalities, the 5-year survival rate is merely 50%. Therefore, implementation of targeted therapies, directed against signaling molecules, has gained attention. One potential target is the MET protein, which can be present on the surface of cancer cells, orchestrating aggressive behavior. As cancer cells can shed the extracellular part of MET from their surface, it is important to identify for MET positive patients whether they possess the entire and/or only the intracellular part of the receptor to assess whether targeted therapies directed against the extracellular, intracellular, or both parts of MET need to be implemented.

Abstract

The receptor tyrosine kinase MET has gained attention as a therapeutic target. Although MET immunoreactivity is associated with progressive disease, use of targeted therapies has not yet led to major survival benefits. A possible explanation is the lack of companion diagnostics (CDx) that account for proteolytic processing. During presenilin-regulated intramembrane proteolysis, MET’s ectodomain is shed into the extracellular space, which is followed by γ-secretase-mediated cleavage of the residual membranous C-terminal fragment. The resulting intracellular fragment is degraded by the proteasome, leading to downregulation of MET signaling. Conversely, a membrane-bound MET fragment lacking the ectodomain (MET-EC^-) can confer malignant potential. Use of C- and N-terminal MET monoclonal antibodies (moAbs) has illustrated that MET-EC^- occurs in transmembranous C-terminal MET-positive oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Here, we propose that ectodomain shedding, resulting from G-protein-coupled receptor transactivation of epidermal growth factor receptor signaling, and/or overexpression of ADAM10/17 and/or MET, stabilizes and possibly activates MET-EC^- in OSCC. As MET-EC^- is associated with poor prognosis in OSCC, it potentially has impact on the use of targeted therapies. Therefore, MET-EC^- should be incorporated in the design of CDx to improve patient stratification and ultimately prolong survival. Hence, MET-EC^- requires further investigation seen its oncogenic and predictive properties.

Calpain as a therapeutic target in cancer

INTRODUCTION

Calpain-1 and calpain-2 are prototypical classical isoforms of the calpain family of calcium-activated cysteine proteases. Their substrate proteins participate in a wide range of cellular processes, including transcription, survival, proliferation, apoptosis, migration, and invasion. Dysregulated calpain activity has been implicated in tumorigenesis, suggesting that calpains may be promising therapeutic targets.

AREAS COVERED

This review covers clinical and basic research studies implicating calpain-1 and calpain-2 expression and activity in tumorigenesis and metastasis. We highlight isoform specific functions and provide an overview of substrates and cancer-related signalling pathways affected by calpain-mediated proteolytic cleavage. We also discuss efforts to develop clinically relevant calpain specific inhibitors and spotlight the challenges facing inhibitor development.

EXPERT OPINION

Rationale for targeting calpain-1 and calpain-2 in cancer is supported by pre-clinical and clinical studies demonstrating that calpain inhibition has the potential to attenuate carcinogenesis and block metastasis of aggressive tumors. The wide range of substrates and cleavage products, paired with inconsistencies in model systems, underscores the need for more complete understanding of physiological substrates and how calpain cleavage alters their function in cellular processes. The development of isoform specific calpain inhibitors remains an important goal with therapeutic potential in cancer and other diseases.

Dependence receptors: new targets for cancer therapy

Dependence receptors are known to promote survival and positive signaling such as proliferation, migration, and differentiation when activated, but to actively trigger apoptosis when unbound to their ligand. Their abnormal regulation was shown to be an important feature of tumorigenesis, allowing cancer cells to escape apoptosis triggered by these receptors while promoting in parallel major aspects of tumorigenesis such as proliferation, angiogenesis, invasiveness, and chemoresistance. This involvement in multiple cancer hallmarks has raised interest in dependence receptors as targets for cancer therapy. Although additional studies remain necessary to fully understand the complexity of signaling pathways activated by these receptors and to target them efficiently, it is now clear that dependence receptors represent very exciting targets for future cancer treatment. This manuscript reviews current knowledge on the contribution of dependence receptors to cancer and highlights the potential for therapies that activate pro-apoptotic functions of these proteins.

cMet agonistic antibody prevents acute kidney injury to chronic kidney disease transition by suppressing Smurf1 and activating Smad7

We aimed to investigate the role of cMet agonistic antibody (cMet Ab) in preventing kidney fibrosis during acute kidney injury (AKI) to chronic kidney disease (CKD) transition. Additionally, we explored the effect of cMet Ab on TGF-β1/Smad pathway during the pathogenesis of kidney fibrosis. A unilateral ischemia-reperfusion injury (UIRI) mouse model was established to induce AKI-to-CKD transition. Furthermore, we incubated human proximal tubular epithelial cells (hPTECs) under hypoxic conditions as in vitro model of kidney fibrosis. We analyzed the soluble plasma cMet level in patients with AKI requiring dialysis. Patients who did not recover kidney function and progressed to CKD presented a higher increase in the cMet level. The kidneys of mice treated with cMet Ab showed fewer contractions and weighed more than the controls. The mice in the cMet Ab-treated group showed reduced fibrosis and significantly decreased expression of fibronectin and α-smooth muscle actin. cMet Ab treatment decreased inflammatory markers (MCP-1, TNF-α, and IL-1β) expression, reduced Smurf1 and Smad2/3 level, and increased Smad7 expressions. cMet Ab treatment increased cMet expression and reduced the hypoxia-induced increase in collagen-1 and ICAM-1 expression, thereby reducing apoptosis in the in vitro cell model. After cMet Ab treatment, hypoxia-induced expression of Smurf1, Smad2/3, and TGF-β1 was reduced, and suppressed Smad7 was activated. Down-regulation of Smurf1 resulted in suppression of hypoxia-induced fibronectin expression, whereas treatment with cMet Ab showed synergistic effects. cMet Ab can successfully prevent fibrosis response in UIRI models of kidney fibrosis by decreasing inflammatory response and inhibiting the TGF-β1/Smad pathway.

Tyrosine Kinase Receptors in Oncology

Tyrosine kinase receptors (TKR) comprise more than 60 molecules that play an essential role in the molecular pathways, leading to cell survival and differentiation. Consequently, genetic alterations of TKRs may lead to tumorigenesis and, therefore, cancer development. The discovery and improvement of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) against TKRs have entailed an important step in the knowledge-expansion of tumor physiopathology as well as an improvement in the cancer treatment based on molecular alterations over many tumor types. The purpose of this review is to provide a comprehensive review of the different families of TKRs and their role in the expansion of tumor cells and how TKIs can stop these pathways to tumorigenesis, in combination or not with other therapies. The increasing growth of this landscape is driving us to strengthen the development of precision oncology with clinical trials based on molecular-based therapy over a histology-based one, with promising preliminary results.

Analysis of erythrocyte signalling pathways during Plasmodium falciparum infection identifies targets for host-directed antimalarial intervention

Intracellular pathogens mobilize host signaling pathways of their host cell to promote their own survival. Evidence is emerging that signal transduction elements are activated in a-nucleated erythrocytes in response to infection with malaria parasites, but the extent of this phenomenon remains unknown. Here, we fill this knowledge gap through a comprehensive and dynamic assessment of host erythrocyte signaling during infection with Plasmodium falciparum. We used arrays of 878 antibodies directed against human signaling proteins to interrogate the activation status of host erythrocyte phospho-signaling pathways at three blood stages of parasite asexual development. This analysis reveals a dynamic modulation of many host signalling proteins across parasite development. Here we focus on the hepatocyte growth factor receptor (c-MET) and the MAP kinase pathway component B-Raf, providing a proof of concept that human signaling kinases identified as activated by malaria infection represent attractive targets for antimalarial intervention.

Plasmodium infection activates signaling pathways in a-nucleated erythrocytes. Here, Adderley et al. use a comprehensive antibody microarray to show that infection extensively modulates host cell signalling and that the host receptor tyrosine kinase c-MET supports Plasmodium falciparum proliferation.

The c-MET oncoprotein: Function, mechanisms of degradation and its targeting by novel anti-cancer agents

BACKGROUND

The c-MET oncoprotein drives cancer progression in a variety of tumors through its signaling transduction pathways. This oncoprotein is also degraded by multiple mechanisms involving the lysosome, proteasome and cleavage by proteases. Targeting c-MET degradation pathways may result in effective therapeutic strategies.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

Since the discovery of oncogenic functions of c-MET, there has been a great deal of effort to develop anti-cancer drugs targeting this oncoprotein. Unexpectedly, novel di-2-pyridylketone thiosemicarbazones that demonstrate marked anti-tumor activity, down-regulate c-MET through their ability to bind intracellular iron and via mechanisms including, down-regulation of MET mRNA, enhanced lysosomal processing and increased metalloprotease-mediated cleavage.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

The c-MET oncoprotein regulation and degradation pathways are complex. However, with increasing understanding of its degradation mechanisms, there is also greater opportunities to therapeutically target these pathways.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Understanding the mechanisms of degradation of c-MET protein and its regulation could lead to novel therapeutics.