1
|
Romanescu M, Oprean C, Lombrea A, Badescu B, Teodor A, Constantin GD, Andor M, Folescu R, Muntean D, Danciu C, Dalleur O, Batrina SL, Cretu O, Buda VO. Current State of Knowledge Regarding WHO High Priority Pathogens-Resistance Mechanisms and Proposed Solutions through Candidates Such as Essential Oils: A Systematic Review. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24119727. [PMID: 37298678 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24119727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Combating antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is among the 10 global health issues identified by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2021. While AMR is a naturally occurring process, the inappropriate use of antibiotics in different settings and legislative gaps has led to its rapid progression. As a result, AMR has grown into a serious global menace that impacts not only humans but also animals and, ultimately, the entire environment. Thus, effective prophylactic measures, as well as more potent and non-toxic antimicrobial agents, are pressingly needed. The antimicrobial activity of essential oils (EOs) is supported by consistent research in the field. Although EOs have been used for centuries, they are newcomers when it comes to managing infections in clinical settings; it is mainly because methodological settings are largely non-overlapping and there are insufficient data regarding EOs' in vivo activity and toxicity. This review considers the concept of AMR and its main determinants, the modality by which the issue has been globally addressed and the potential of EOs as alternative or auxiliary therapy. The focus is shifted towards the pathogenesis, mechanism of resistance and activity of several EOs against the six high priority pathogens listed by WHO in 2017, for which new therapeutic solutions are pressingly required.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mirabela Romanescu
- Doctoral School, "Victor Babeş" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2 Eftimie Murgu Street, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
- Faculty of Medicine, "Victor Babeş" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2 Eftimie Murgu Street, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Camelia Oprean
- Faculty of Pharmacy, "Victor Babeş" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2 Eftimie Murgu Street, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
- OncoGen Centre, County Hospital 'Pius Branzeu', Blvd. Liviu Rebreanu 156, 300723 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Adelina Lombrea
- Doctoral School, "Victor Babeş" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2 Eftimie Murgu Street, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Bianca Badescu
- Doctoral School, "Victor Babeş" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2 Eftimie Murgu Street, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Ana Teodor
- Doctoral School, "Victor Babeş" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2 Eftimie Murgu Street, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
| | - George D Constantin
- Doctoral School, "Victor Babeş" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2 Eftimie Murgu Street, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Minodora Andor
- Faculty of Medicine, "Victor Babeş" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2 Eftimie Murgu Street, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Roxana Folescu
- Faculty of Medicine, "Victor Babeş" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2 Eftimie Murgu Street, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Delia Muntean
- Faculty of Medicine, "Victor Babeş" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2 Eftimie Murgu Street, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
- Multidisciplinary Research Center on Antimicrobial Resistance, "Victor Babes" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2 Eftimie Murgu Square, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Corina Danciu
- Faculty of Pharmacy, "Victor Babeş" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2 Eftimie Murgu Street, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
- Research Center for Pharmaco-Toxicological Evaluation, "Victor Babes" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2 Eftimie Murgu Square, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Olivia Dalleur
- Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Avenue Emmanuel Mounier 73, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Stefan Laurentiu Batrina
- Faculty of Agriculture, University of Life Sciences "King Mihai I" from Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119, 300645 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Octavian Cretu
- Faculty of Medicine, "Victor Babeş" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2 Eftimie Murgu Street, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Valentina Oana Buda
- Faculty of Pharmacy, "Victor Babeş" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2 Eftimie Murgu Street, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
- Research Center for Pharmaco-Toxicological Evaluation, "Victor Babes" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2 Eftimie Murgu Square, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
- Ineu City Hospital, 2 Republicii Street, 315300 Ineu, Romania
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Haas W, Singh N, Lainhart W, Mingle L, Nazarian E, Mitchell K, Nattanmai G, Kohlerschmidt D, Dickinson MC, Kacica M, Dumas N, Musser KA. Genomic Analysis of Vancomycin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Isolates from the 3rd Case Identified in the United States Reveals Chromosomal Integration of the vanA Locus. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0431722. [PMID: 36975781 PMCID: PMC10100801 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.04317-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) is a human pathogen of significant public health concern. Although the genome sequences of individual VRSA isolates have been published over the years, very little is known about the genetic changes of VRSA within a patient over time. A total of 11 VRSA, 3 vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE), and 4 methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) isolates, collected over a period of 4.5 months in 2004 from a patient in a long-term-care facility in New York State, were sequenced. A combination of long- and short-read sequencing technologies was used to obtain closed assemblies for chromosomes and plasmids. Our results indicate that a VRSA isolate emerged as the result of the transfer of a multidrug resistance plasmid from a coinfecting VRE to an MRSA isolate. The plasmid then integrated into the chromosome via homologous recombination mediated between two regions derived from remnants of transposon Tn5405. Once integrated, the plasmid underwent further reorganization in one isolate, while two others lost the staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec element (SCCmec) determinant that confers methicillin-resistance. The results presented here explain how a few recombination events can lead to multiple pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) patterns that could be mistaken for vastly different strains. A vanA gene cluster that is located on a multidrug resistance plasmid that is integrated into the chromosome could result in the continuous propagation of resistance, even in the absence of selective pressure from antibiotics. The genome comparison presented here sheds light on the emergence and evolution of VRSA within a single patient that will enhance our understanding VRSA genetics. IMPORTANCE High-level vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) began to emerge in the United States in 2002 and has since then been reported worldwide. Our study reports the closed genome sequences of multiple VRSA isolates obtained in 2004 from a single patient in New York State. Our results show that the vanA resistance locus is located on a mosaic plasmid that confers resistance to multiple antibiotics. In some isolates, this plasmid integrated into the chromosome via homologous recombination between two ant(6)-sat4-aph(3') antibiotic resistance loci. This is, to our knowledge, the first report of a chromosomal vanA locus in VRSA; the effect of this integration event on MIC values and plasmid stability in the absence of antibiotic selection remains poorly understood. These findings highlight the need for a better understanding of the genetics of the vanA locus and plasmid maintenance in S. aureus to address the increase of vancomycin resistance in the health care setting.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Haas
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Navjot Singh
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
| | - William Lainhart
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Lisa Mingle
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Elizabeth Nazarian
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Kara Mitchell
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Geetha Nattanmai
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Donna Kohlerschmidt
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
| | | | - Marilyn Kacica
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Nellie Dumas
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Kimberlee A. Musser
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Paudel A, Panthee S, Hamamoto H, Grunert T, Sekimizu K. YjbH regulates virulence genes expression and oxidative stress resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Virulence 2021; 12:470-480. [PMID: 33487122 PMCID: PMC7849776 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2021.1875683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously reported that disruption of the yjbI gene reduced virulence of Staphylococcus aureus. In this study, we found virulence in both silkworms and mice was restored by introducing the yjbH gene but not the yjbI gene to both yjbI and yjbH genes-disrupted mutants, suggesting that yjbH, the gene downstream to the yjbI gene in a two-gene operon-yjbIH, is responsible for this phenomenon. We further observed a decrease in various surface-associated proteins and changes in cell envelope glycostructures in the mutants. RNA-seq analysis revealed that disruption of the yjbI and the yjbH genes resulted in differential expression of a broad range of genes, notably, significant downregulation of genes involved in virulence and oxidative stress. Administration of N-acetyl-L-cysteine, a free-radical scavenger, restored the virulence in both the mutants. Our findings suggested that YjbH plays a role in staphylococcal pathogenicity by regulating virulence gene expression, affecting the bacterial surface structure, and conferring resistance to oxidative stress in a host.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Atmika Paudel
- Teikyo University Institute of Medical Mycology, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Suresh Panthee
- Teikyo University Institute of Medical Mycology, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Hamamoto
- Teikyo University Institute of Medical Mycology, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tom Grunert
- Functional Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Kazuhisa Sekimizu
- Teikyo University Institute of Medical Mycology, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Paudel A, Hamamoto H, Panthee S, Matsumoto Y, Sekimizu K. Large-Scale Screening and Identification of Novel Pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus Genes Using a Silkworm Infection Model. J Infect Dis 2021; 221:1795-1804. [PMID: 31912866 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiaa004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The regulatory network of virulence factors produced by the opportunistic pathogen Staphylococcus aureus is unclear and the functions of many uncharacterized genes in its genome remain to be elucidated. In this study, we screened 380 genes whose function was unassigned, utilizing gene-disrupted transposon mutants of the community-acquired methicillin-resistant S. aureus USA300 for pathogenicity in silkworms. We identified 10 strains with reduced silkworm killing ability. Among them, 8 displayed reduced virulence in a mouse model as evidenced by reduced colony-forming units in organs of infected mice. The role of each gene in pathogenicity was further confirmed by complementation and pathogenicity tests in silkworms, where we found that the phenotype was not restored in 1 strain. Additionally, some of the mutants displayed reduced hemolysis, proteolysis, pigment production, and survival in murine RAW 264.7 monocyte-macrophage cells. These newly identified genes involved in virulence will enhance our understanding of the pathogenicity of S. aureus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Atmika Paudel
- Institute of Medical Mycology, Teikyo University, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Suresh Panthee
- Institute of Medical Mycology, Teikyo University, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Khanal A, G.C. S, Gaire A, Khanal A, Estrada R, Ghimire R, Panthee S. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Nepal: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Infect Dis 2021; 103:48-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.11.152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
|
6
|
Panthee S, Paudel A, Hamamoto H, Uhlemann AC, Sekimizu K. The Role of Amino Acid Substitution in HepT Toward Menaquinone Isoprenoid Chain Length Definition and Lysocin E Sensitivity in Staphylococcus aureus. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:2076. [PMID: 32983054 PMCID: PMC7479192 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.02076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Staphylococcus aureus Smith strain is a historical strain widely used for research purposes in animal infection models for testing the therapeutic activity of antimicrobial agents. We found that it displayed higher sensitivity toward lysocin E, a menaquinone (MK) targeting antibiotic, compared to other S. aureus strains. Therefore, we further explored the mechanism of this hypersensitivity. METHODS MK production was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometric analysis. S. aureus Smith genome sequence was completed using a hybrid assembly approach, and the MK biosynthetic genes were compared with other S. aureus strains. The hepT gene was cloned and introduced into S. aureus RN4220 strain using phage mediated recombination, and lysocin E sensitivity was analyzed by the measurement of colony-forming units. RESULTS We found that Smith strain produced MKs with the length of the side chain ranging between 8 and 10, as opposed to other S. aureus strains that produce MKs 7-9. We revealed that Smith strain possessed the classical pathway for MK biosynthesis like the other S. aureus. HepT, a polyprenyl diphosphate synthase involved in chain elongation of isoprenoid, in Smith strain harbored a Q25P substitution. Introduction of hepT from Smith to RN4220 led to the production of MK-10 and an increased sensitivity toward lysocin E. CONCLUSION We found that HepT was responsible for the definition of isoprenoid chain length of MKs and antibiotic sensitivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Suresh Panthee
- Teikyo University Institute of Medical Mycology, Hachioji, Japan
| | - Atmika Paudel
- Teikyo University Institute of Medical Mycology, Hachioji, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Hamamoto
- Teikyo University Institute of Medical Mycology, Hachioji, Japan
| | - Anne-Catrin Uhlemann
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Panthee S, Paudel A, Blom J, Hamamoto H, Sekimizu K. Complete Genome Sequence of Weissella hellenica 0916-4-2 and Its Comparative Genomic Analysis. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1619. [PMID: 31396169 PMCID: PMC6667553 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Weissella genus from Leuconostocaceae family forms a group of Gram-positive lactic acid bacteria (LAB) that mostly reside in fermented foods and some have been isolated from the environment and vertebrates including humans. Currently there are 23 recognized species, 16 complete and 37 draft genome assemblies for this genus. Weissella hellenica has been found in various sources and is characterized by their probiotic and bacteriocinogenic properties. Despite its widespread importance, little attention has been paid to genomic characterization of this species with the availability of draft assembly of two species in the public database so far. In this manuscript, we identified W. hellenica 0916-4-2 from fermented kimchi and completed its genome sequence. Comparative genomic analysis identified 88 core genes that had interspecies mean amino acid identity of more than 65%. Whole genome phylogenetic analysis showed that three W. hellenica strains clustered together and the strain 0916-4-2 was close to strain WiKim14. In silico analysis for the secondary metabolites biosynthetic gene cluster showed that Weissella are far less producers of secondary metabolites compared to other members of Leuconostocaceae. The availability of the complete genome of W. hellenica 0916-4-2 will facilitate further comparative genomic analysis of Weissella species, including studies of its biotechnological potential and improving the nutritional value of various food products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Suresh Panthee
- Institute of Medical Mycology, Teikyo University, Hachioji, Japan
| | - Atmika Paudel
- Institute of Medical Mycology, Teikyo University, Hachioji, Japan
| | - Jochen Blom
- Bioinformatics and Systems Biology, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Hiroshi Hamamoto
- Institute of Medical Mycology, Teikyo University, Hachioji, Japan
| | - Kazuhisa Sekimizu
- Institute of Medical Mycology, Teikyo University, Hachioji, Japan.,Genome Pharmaceuticals Institute, Bunkyōku, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Panthee S, Hamamoto H, Ishijima SA, Paudel A, Sekimizu K. Utilization of Hybrid Assembly Approach to Determine the Genome of an Opportunistic Pathogenic Fungus, Candida albicans TIMM 1768. Genome Biol Evol 2018; 10:2017-2022. [PMID: 30059981 PMCID: PMC6097704 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evy166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Candida albicans TIMM1768 is a highly virulent strain utilized as a model organism for the study of gastrointestinal and oral candidiasis. Despite being a model strain, identification of its genetic determinants of pathogenesis is hindered by the unavailability of its genome sequence. In this study, we determined the genome sequence of C. albicans TIMM1768 using reads obtained from portable MinION and benchtop Ion PGM sequencers. Genome annotation and a comparative analysis with published genomes revealed that the TIMM1768 strain was close to Candida albicans CHN1, and we identified a significant number of genes encoding for pathogenesis. The availability of the C. albicans TIMM1768 genome will facilitate comparative genomic analysis of Candida species, including studies of its virulence mechanisms and the development of treatment strategies for severe candidiasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Suresh Panthee
- Institute of Medical Mycology, Teikyo University, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Hamamoto
- Institute of Medical Mycology, Teikyo University, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Sanae A Ishijima
- Institute of Medical Mycology, Teikyo University, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Atmika Paudel
- Institute of Medical Mycology, Teikyo University, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuhisa Sekimizu
- Institute of Medical Mycology, Teikyo University, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
- Genome Pharmaceuticals Institute Co., Ltd, Bunkyo, Tokyo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Pediatric Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Osteoarticular Infections. Microorganisms 2018; 6:microorganisms6020040. [PMID: 29734665 PMCID: PMC6027280 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms6020040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Revised: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Osteoarticular infections (OSI) are a significant cause of hospitalizations and morbidity in young children. The pediatric patient with OSI presents unique challenges in diagnosis and management due to higher morbidity, effect on growth plate with associated long-lasting sequelae, and challenges in early identification and management. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), first described in the 1960s, has evolved rapidly to emerge as a predominant cause of OSI in children, and therefore empiric treatment for OSI should include an antibiotic effective against MRSA. Characterizing MRSA strains can be done by antimicrobial susceptibility testing, detection of Panton–Valentine leukocidin (PVL) gene, staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) typing, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), and multilocus sequence typing (MLST). Worldwide, community-onset methicillin-resistant staphylococcal disease is widespread and is mainly associated with a PVL-producing clone, ST8/USA300. Many studies have implied a correlation between PVL genes and more severe infection. We review MRSA OSI along with the pertinent aspects of its pathogenesis, clinical spectrum, diagnosis, and current guidelines for management.
Collapse
|
10
|
Pharmacokinetic parameters explain the therapeutic activity of antimicrobial agents in a silkworm infection model. Sci Rep 2018; 8:1578. [PMID: 29371643 PMCID: PMC5785531 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-19867-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Poor pharmacokinetic parameters are a major reason for the lack of therapeutic activity of some drug candidates. Determining the pharmacokinetic parameters of drug candidates at an early stage of development requires an inexpensive animal model with few associated ethical issues. In this study, we used the silkworm infection model to perform structure-activity relationship studies of an antimicrobial agent, GPI0039, a novel nitrofuran dichloro-benzyl ester, and successfully identified compound 5, a nitrothiophene dichloro-benzyl ester, as a potent antimicrobial agent with superior therapeutic activity in the silkworm infection model. Further, we compared the pharmacokinetic parameters of compound 5 with a nitrothiophene benzyl ester lacking chlorine, compound 7, that exerted similar antimicrobial activity but had less therapeutic activity in silkworms, and examined the metabolism of these antimicrobial agents in human liver fractions in vitro. Compound 5 had appropriate pharmacokinetic parameters, such as an adequate half-life, slow clearance, large area under the curve, low volume of distribution, and long mean residence time, compared with compound 7, and was slowly metabolized by human liver fractions. These findings suggest that the therapeutic effectiveness of an antimicrobial agent in the silkworms reflects appropriate pharmacokinetic properties.
Collapse
|