Die Gefährdung zur Sportsucht in Ausdauersportarten

Compulsive Exercise, Exercise Identity, and Coping Styles

Abstract. Compulsive exercise occurs among the general exercise population and is associated with adverse mental and physical health outcomes. The current study explored compulsive exercise behavior regarding coping styles and its relationship to identity to improve our understanding of compulsive exercise among the general exercise population. A community sample of 1,209 adults (aged 18 – 89) with varied exercise levels completed an online survey. We examined the relationships between engagement and disengagement coping styles (as assessed by the Coping Strategy Inventory) and exercise identity (Exercise Identity Scale) with compulsive exercise (Compulsive Exercise Test) using correlation, regression, and moderation analyses. Emotion-focused engagement (β = .075, p < .01) and emotion-focused disengagement (β = .212, p < .001) coping styles significantly predicted compulsive exercise, as did exercise identity (β = .514, p < .001). Coping styles did not moderate the relationship between exercise identity and compulsive exercise behaviors. The results indicate that both adaptive and maladaptive emotion-based coping styles are associated with greater compulsive exercise behavior.

Alike and different: Associations between orthorexic eating behaviors and exercise addiction

OBJECTIVE

Symptoms of exercise addiction, a state of compulsively engaging in intense exercise, and orthorexic eating attitudes, the obsession with eating only healthy foods, often occur together. It is assumed that some more general psychological traits underlie this association. Main aim of this report was to examine similarities and differences between orthorexic eating and addictive exercising.

METHOD

Six hundred and eight individuals completed an online survey (mean age: 27.5, SD = 11.0 years; 76.5% women) measuring exercise addiction (Exercise Addiction inventory, EAI), orthorexic eating (Düsseldorfer Orthorexie Skala, DOS), personality domains (Big-Five Inventory-10), anxiety and depression (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale).

RESULTS

Correlations between the DOS and EAI were .43 in women and .62 in men. Structural equation models identified gender-specific as well as behavior-specific psychological correlates. Among women, anxiety correlated with both EAI and DOS. In addition, the DOS correlated with depression and neuroticism while the EAI correlated with conscientiousness. In men, both scales were associated with conscientiousness and the EAI also correlated with extraversion. Clusterability analysis provided no evidence for clusters based on DOS and EAI.

DISCUSSION

Present results showed a substantial correlation between addictive exercising and orthorexic eating, however, coefficients were smaller than expected and appeared higher in men. Both behaviors shared few psychological traits (anxiety in women, conscientiousness in men) thereby questioning the assumption of a similar origin. Additionally, gender-specific psychological correlates point to the need for different disease management approaches in women and men.

Associations Between C-Reactive Protein Levels, Exercise Addiction, and Athlete Burnout in Endurance Athletes

Regular physical activity can support long-term health maintenance, e.g., by reducing inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein (CRP) levels. However, excessive physical activity can promote the development of both mental and physical illness as well. From a psychological perspective, excessive exercise can lead to the development of exercise addiction (EA) and athlete burnout (AB). However, EA and AB have been rarely investigated so far and it is still unknown whether they are associated with risk factors for physical diseases such as increased CRP levels. In our study, we investigated whether EA and AB in endurance athletes are associated with CRP concentrations. Furthermore, sex differences and prevalence rates of EA were investigated. Ninety-five endurance athletes participated (54.7% female, mean age = 31.8 ± 15.02 years). CRP levels were assessed by means of Dried Blood Spots. For EA and AB assessment, the Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI) and the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) were used. Exercise addiction was negatively associated with CRP in men. No associations were found for women. None of the ABQ subscales (physical and emotional exhaustion, devaluation of sports, and reduced sense of accomplishment) was associated with CRP levels or with EA. Prevalence of EA was 4.2%. More than 80% of the participants were at risk for EA development. Our results suggest that EA is not necessarily associated with a higher risk for physical diseases through inflammatory pathways. However, EA is a serious mental illness that is widespread in athletes, at least at a subclinical level.

Zusammen sind wir stärker

Zusammenfassung. In der Forschung und in der Praxis gewinnt die Sportpsychologie an Bedeutung. Allerdings vertreten wir die Position, dass die Integration dieser Bereiche noch ausgebaut werden kann. In unseren Augen fehlen der Forschung Feldnähe und Wissensübersetzung und der Praxis evidenzbasierte Anwendung und wissenschaftliche Vorgehensweisen. Konkret behindern erfolgreiche Integration Barrieren bezüglich Kommunikation, Kultur, Motivation, Wichtigkeit, Dringlichkeit, Veröffentlichungen, Leseverhalten, Begrifflichkeiten, Tätigkeiten, Ausbildung, Zeit, Förderungsanforderungen, systemischen Zielen und Kooperationen der Zielpopulation ( Haddow & Klobas, 2004 ). Integration fördern kann die Forschung gemäß unserer Position, indem sie die Praxis stärker einbindet und ihre Ergebnisse besser kommuniziert, während die Praxis Forschungsergebnisse bei der Auswahl und Entwicklung von Interventionen stärker einbezieht und wissenschaftliche Methoden besser einbindet. Auch übergeordnete Stellen können unserer Auffassung nach Integration unterstützen. Letztendlich argumentieren wir, dass nicht nur Forschung (via nutzbarerer Ergebnisse, relevanterer Themen) und Praxis (via zielgerichteterer Vorgehensweisen, effizienterer Prozesse) von Integration profitieren, sondern die Sportpsychologie als Gesamtfeld (via erhöhter Qualität und Investitionen).

Aging male symptomatology and eating behavior

OBJECTIVE

The literature on eating disorders in older males is still very limited. We assessed the relationship between aging male symptomatology and eating behavior in middle-aged and older men.

METHOD

We distributed anonymous questionnaires to men aged 40-75 years living in or near Innsbruck, Austria, covering demographic items, current eating disorder symptoms (as defined by DSM-5), and associated measures of eating pathology, body image, and sports activity (including exercise addiction). We also administered the Aging Males' Symptoms scale (AMS), and classified respondents as "high-AMS" (AMS score ≥37; N = 82) or "low-AMS" (AMS score <37; N = 386).

RESULTS

High-AMS men reported a significantly higher mean current BMI, a greater prevalence of eating disorder symptoms, higher scores on the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire, greater risk of exercise addiction, and more negative body image than low-AMS men.

DISCUSSION

We found a marked association between aging-male symptomatology and eating-disorder symptomatology in aging men. Our findings suggest that clinicians should carefully inquire about eating disorder symptoms in men aged 40 and above reporting aging-male symptomatology. Importantly, several men in the study reported "purging" via excessive exercise (as opposed to the more common methods of vomiting or use of laxatives or diuretics), and therefore this should be a subject of inquiry in clinical evaluations. To pursue these findings, subsequent studies of eating disorders in older men should consider assessing endocrinological measures, particularly testosterone levels, and should use longitudinal designs.

The connection between exercise addiction and orthorexia nervosa in German fitness sports

PURPOSE

The combination of physical activity and healthy eating habits has potentially positive effects on health. However, both practices can also lead to pathological behaviors such as exercise addiction (EA) and orthorexia nervosa (ON), thus generating negative effects. So far, studies analyzing the connection between these two phenomena cannot be found. The current paper is aiming to close this gap.

METHODS

The sample (n = 1.008) consisted of 559 male and 449 female active members of three fitness studios, and was analyzed in a cross-sectional study design. The Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI) was used to establish exercise addiction and the Düsseldorfer Orthorexie Skala (DOS) was used to evaluate orthorectic eating behavior.

RESULTS

Out of the whole sample, 10.2% exhibit EA, while ON is prevalent in 3.4%. Twenty-three (2.3%) individuals suffer from both. There is a significant positive correlation between DOS and EAI (p < .001, r = .421). Female participants (p < .001, r = .452) show a higher correlation compared to male participants (p < .001, r = .418).

CONCLUSION

The results suggest a positive correlation between ON and EA in the context of German fitness sports. Both seem to be serious phenomena and require further investigation.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level V (cross-sectional descriptive study).

Epidemiology and treatment of eating disorders in men and women of middle and older age

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

We summarized recent literature on the epidemiology and treatment of eating disorders in middle-aged and older women and men.

RECENT FINDINGS

The prevalence of eating disorders according to DSM-5 criteria is around 3.5% in older (>40 years) women and around 1-2% in older men. The majority of those eating disordered persons are not in treatment. There are new terms like 'perimenopausal eating disorders' and 'muscularity-oriented eating disorders' indicating the impact of the aging process and sex-specific differences.

SUMMARY

Disordered eating and eating disorders occur in both women and men of all ages. Medical complications because of age, the stigma of eating disorders in a still 'untypical' age, and the glorification of sports activity often hinder the recognition of eating disorders in midlife and older persons. Treatment approaches should consider treatment strategies tailored for older women and men, addressing the context of midlife and aging.

Eating disorder symptoms in middle-aged and older men

OBJECTIVE

Few studies have assessed symptoms of eating disorders in older men.

METHOD

We administered anonymous questionnaires to 470 men, aged 40-75 years, in and around Innsbruck, Austria, to assess eating behavior, body image, and exercise activities. We defined current eating disorder symptoms (EDS) as (1) BMI < 18.5; (2) binge eating; (3) binge eating and purging; or (4) purging without binge eating.

RESULTS

Of the 470 men, 32 (6.8%) reported one of the four eating disorder symptoms. The 32 men with eating disorder symptoms, compared to the 438 men with normal eating, showed significantly greater pathology on scales assessing eating behavior, exercise addiction, satisfaction with body shape, and weight. However, the EDE-Q cutoff score for eating disturbance identified only three (9%) of the EDS men.

DISCUSSION

Symptoms of disordered eating, sometimes involving purging via excessive exercise, do occur in older men, and may be missed by conventional instruments. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.(Int J Eat Disord 2016; 49:953-957).