Ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate isolated from Kaempferia galanga inhibits inflammation by suppressing interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor-α, and angiogenesis by blocking endothelial functions

Dual action effects of ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate against dengue virus infection and inflammation via NF-κB pathway suppression

Dengue virus (DENV) infection can lead to severe outcomes through a virus-induced cytokine storm, resulting in vascular leakage and inflammation. An effective treatment strategy should target both virus replication and cytokine storm. This study identified Kaempferia galanga L. (KG) extract as exhibiting anti-DENV activity. The major bioactive compound, ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate (EPMC), significantly reduced DENV-2 infection, virion production, and viral protein synthesis in HepG2 and A549 cells, with half-maximal effective concentration (EC50) values of 22.58 µM and 6.17 µM, and impressive selectivity indexes (SIs) of 32.40 and 173.44, respectively. EPMC demonstrated efficacy against all four DENV serotypes, targeting the replication phase of the virus life cycle. Importantly, EPMC reduced DENV-2-induced cytokines (IL-6 and TNF-α) and chemokines (RANTES and IP-10), as confirmed by immunofluorescence and immunoblot analyses, indicating inhibition of NF-κB activation. EPMC's role in preventing excessive inflammatory responses suggests it as a potential candidate for dengue treatment. Absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) and drug-likeness for EPMC were predicted using SwissADME and ProTox II servers, showing good drug-like properties without toxicity. These findings highlight KG extract and EPMC as promising candidates for future anti-dengue therapeutics, offering a dual-action approach by inhibiting virus replication and mitigating inflammatory reactions.

Exploring in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activities of the Thai traditional remedy Kheaw-Hom and its bioactive compound, ethyl p-methoxycinnamate, and ethnopharmacological analysis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Kheaw-Hom (KH) remedy, a Thai traditional medicine (TTM) on the National List of Essential Medicines, has long been clinically used to treat fever and inflammation in children. However, no in vitro or in vivo anti-inflammatory or bioactive compound studies are published in the literature.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

To explore the in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activities of KH remedy and its bioactive compound and analyze relationships between flavor and ethnopharmacological activities of plant components in KH remedy according to TTM theory.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethyl p-methoxycinnamate (EPMC), a bioactive compound of KH remedy was analyzed using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). In vitro anti-inflammatory activities of ethanolic extract (KHE), aqueous extract (KHA), acid-hydrolysis of KHA (KHA-h), acid-hydrolysis of KH powder (KHP-h), and EPMC were investigated using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) production in murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cells. In vivo anti-inflammatory activities of KH powder (KHP) and KHE were determined using carrageenan-induced paw edema and ethyl phenylpropiolate (EPP)-induced ear edema in rats and PGE2 production in tissue samples was examined.

RESULTS

KHP-h showed the highest EPMC content (21.33 ± 1.08 mg/g of extract) and inhibited PGE2, NO, and TNF-α production with IC50 values of 11.92 ± 0.21, 30.61 ± 3.12, and 56.71 ± 2.91 μg/mL, respectively, followed by KHE and KHA-h while KHA did not. EPMC, a bioactive compound of KH remedy showed high anti-inflammatory activities through three pathways. KHP oral administration (100 mg/kg) significantly minimized rat paw inflammation at 1, 2, and 3 h while KHE (100 mg/kg) noticeably reduced at 2 and 3 h. KHP (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg) and KHE (100 mg/kg) significantly inhibited PGE2 production. KHP (1% w/v) notably reduced rat ear edema at 30, 60, and 120 min whereas KHE at all concentrations decreased swelling at 120 min. KHP and KHE at all doses significantly inhibited PGE2 production. Cool flavor was the main KH remedy flavor. Spicy plant components and some fragrant components showed high anti-inflammatory activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Results from the in vivo study strongly paralleled the in vitro study. These findings support the rational use of KH remedy according to TTM theory for fever treatment and inflammation in children.

Kaempferia galanga L. extract and its main component, ethyl p-methoxycinnamate, inhibit the proliferation of Ehrlich ascites tumor cells by suppressing TFAM expression

Kaempferia galanga L. shows anti-cancer effects; however, the underling mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we explored the underlying mechanism of the anti-cancer effects of Kaempferia galanga L. Kaempferia galanga L. rhizome extracts (KGEs) suppressed Ehrlich ascites tumor cell (EATC) proliferation by inhibiting S-phase progression. The main component of KGE is ethyl p-methoxycinnamate (EMC), which exhibits the same anti-proliferative effect as KGE. Furthermore, EMC induced the downregulation of cyclin D1 and upregulation of p21. EMC also decreased the expression of mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM) but did not significantly change mitochondrial DNA copy number and membrane potential. Phosphorylation at Ser62 of c-Myc, a transcription factor of TFAM, was decreased by EMC treatment, which might be due to the suppression of H-ras expression. These results indicate that EMC is the active compound responsible for the anti-cancer effect of KGE and suppresses EATC proliferation by regulating the protein expression of cyclin D1 and p21; TFAM may also regulate the expression of these genes. In addition, we investigated the anticancer effects of KGE and EMC in vivo using EATC bearing mice. The volume of ascites fluid was significantly increased by intraperitoneal administration of EATC. However, the increase in the volume of ascites fluid was suppressed by oral administration of EMC and KGE. This study provides novel insights into the association between the anti-cancer effects of natural compounds and TFAM, indicating that TFAM might be a potential therapeutic target.

Novel ethyl p-methoxy cinnamate rich Kaempferia galanga (L.) essential oil and its pharmacological applications: special emphasis on anticholinesterase, anti-tyrosinase, α-amylase inhibitory, and genotoxic efficiencies

Background

Kaempferia galanga (L.) is one of the prospective therapeutic plants with an aromatic rhizome, and belongs to the Zingiberaceae family. This herb is commonly used by local practitioners in traditional Asian medicine.

Methods

In the present investigation, the novel Kaempferia galanga rhizome essential oil rich in ethyl p-methoxy cinnamate (EMCKG) was evaluated using GC/MS for chemical composition analysis. EMCKG was analyzed for its possible antimicrobial, neurodegenerative inhibitory, acetylcholinesterase, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities as well as for the genotoxic effects using the standard methodologies. ANOVA and post hoc was performed to test the statistical significance of the study.

Results

GC/MS analysis identified ethyl p-methoxy cinnamate as the major component of EMCKG essential oil with an area percentage of 66.39%. The EMCKG exhibited moderate (DPPH assay IC₅₀ = 15.64 ± 0.263 µg/mL; ABTS assay IC₅₀ = 16.93 ± 0.228 µg/mL) antioxidant activity than standard ascorbic acid (DPPH assay IC₅₀ = 21.24 ± 0.413 µg/mL; ABTS assay IC₅₀ = 21.156 ± 0.345 µg/mL). Similarly, EMCKG showed comparable activity in albumin denaturation (IC₅₀ = 2.93 ± 0.59 µg/mL) and protease inhibitor assay (IC₅₀ = 17.143 ± 0.506 µg/mL) to that of standard sodium diclofenac (IC₅₀ = 23.87 ± 0.729 µg/mL and IC₅₀ = 19.18 ± 0.271 µg/mL, respectively). The EMCKG exhibited a dose-dependent antimicrobial activity pattern with the highest inhibitory activity at 500 µg/mL against Staphylococcus aureus and considerable anticholinesterase activities (IC₅₀ = 21.94 ± 0.109 µg/mL) compared to the standard galanthamine (IC₅₀ = 27.18 ± 0.511 µg/mL). EMCKG also showed strong anti-diabetic activity (IC₅₀ = 18.503 ± 0.480 µg/mL) and anti-tyrosinase activity (IC₅₀ = 14.756 ± 0.325 µg/mL) as compared to the standards used (acarbose IC₅₀ = 20.39 ± 0.231 µg/mL and kojic acid IC₅₀ = 17.73 ± 0.192 µg/mL) in the study. Genotoxicity analysis of EMCKG revealed that at 1 µg/mL concentration has no toxic effects in mitosis of Allium cepa roots (Mitotic Index MI = 13.56% and chromosomal aberration CA = 07.60%). The ANOVA confirmed that except for the anticholinesterase activity, there is insignificant difference for essential oil and standards used for all the other bioactivities thus confirming their interchangeable applicability.

Conclusions

Current research provides the basis for the fact that besides being a rich source of ethyl p-methoxycinnamate, EMCKG has the potential for future formulation and development of an inexpensive skin-care agent and for the preparation of anti-diabetic drugs.

Antiproliferative and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Deprungsith Formulation and Its Bioactive Compounds Against Mild Psoriasis and Potential of Metabolic Herb-Drug Interactions

Psoriasis is an incurable, chronic and auto-immune skin disorder with a global prevalence rate of approximately 2-3%. The study investigated the antipsoriasis activities of Deprungsith formulation and its bioactive components and their potential for inhibitory activities on human cytochrome P450 (CYP450). HaCaT and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from healthy volunteers (n = 9) and psoriasis patients (n = 10) were exposed to Deprungsith formulation (Thai traditional medicine for psoriasis consisting of 16 plants), ethyl p-methoxycinnamate (EPMC), ligustilide and cyclosporin for 24 and 48 h. The antiproliferative, cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest activities were evaluated using MTT assay and flow cytometry, respectively. The pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNA expression levels were measured using real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The CYP450 inhibitory effect was investigated using a bioluminescent-based CYP450 assay. Deprungsith formulation and the bioactive compounds inhibited HaCaT cells and PBMCs with weak to moderate potencies. EPMC and ligustilide combination produced an additive effect. Most substances arrested cell transition at sub-G1 and S phases, leading to early and late apoptosis induction. With prolonged exposure (48 h), all test substances decreased PBMCs necrosis. The mRNA expression of all pro-inflammatory cytokines was downregulated. Deprungsith formulation, EPMC, ligustilide and ferulic acid inhibited CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 activities with weak to moderate potencies. Deprungsith formulation and bioactive components induced cell apoptosis by inhibiting cell transition at specific cell cycle phases, which was correlated with the mRNA downregulation of interleukin (IL-6, IL-12p19, IL-23) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α). There is a low risk of potential adverse drug reactions and toxicity due to CYP450 interaction when Deprungsith formulation is concurrently administered with modern medicines.

The industrially important genus Kaempferia: An ethnopharmacological review

Kaempferia, a genus of the family Zingiberaceae, is widely distributed with more than 50 species which are mostly found throughout Southeast Asia. These plants have important ethnobotanical significance as many species are used in Ayurvedic and other traditional medicine preparations. This genus has received a lot of scholarly attention recently as a result of the numerous health advantages it possesses. In this review, we have compiled the scientific information regarding the relevance, distribution, industrial applications, phytochemistry, ethnopharmacology, tissue culture and conservation initiative of the Kaempferia genus along with the commercial realities and limitations of the research as well as missing industrial linkages followed by an exploration of some of the likely future promising clinical potential. The current review provides a richer and deeper understanding of Kaempferia, which can be applied in areas like phytopharmacology, molecular research, and industrial biology. The knowledge from this study can be further implemented for the establishment of new conservation strategies.

Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Medicinal Plants Used by the Tenggerese Society in Java Island of Indonesia

The archipelagic country of Indonesia is inhabited by 300 ethnic groups, including the indigenous people of Tengger. Based on the reported list of medicinal plants used by the Tengger community, we have reviewed each of them for their phytochemical constituents and pharmacological activities. Out of a total of 41 medicinal plants used by the Tengerrese people, 33 species were studied for their phytochemical and pharmacological properties. More than 554 phytochemicals with diverse molecular structures belonging to different chemical classes including flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins and volatiles were identified from these studied 34 medicinal plants. Many of these medicinal plants and their compounds have been tested for various pharmacological activities including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, wound healing, headache, antimalarial and hypertension. Five popularly used medicinal plants by the healers were Garcinia mangostana, Apium graveolens, Cayratia clematidea, Drymocallis arguta and Elaeocarpus longifolius. Only A. graviolens were previously studied, with the outcomes supporting the pharmacological claims to treat hypertension. Few unexplored medicinal plants are Physalis lagascae, Piper amplum, Rosa tomentosa and Tagetes tenuifolia, and they present great potential for biodiscovery and drug lead identification.

Ultraviolet Radiation Protective and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Kaempferia galanga L. Rhizome Oil and Microemulsion: Formulation, Characterization, and Hydrogel Preparation

Long-term UV radiation exposure can induce skin disorders such as cancer and photoallergic reactions. Natural products have been considered as non-irritate and potential sunscreen resources due to their UV absorption and anti-inflammatory activities. This study aimed to evaluate the in vitro ultraviolet radiation protective effect and anti-inflammatory activity of K. galanga rhizome oil and microemulsions. The chemical components of K. galanga rhizome oil was analyzed via gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Microemulsions containing K. galanga rhizome oil were formulated using a phase-titration method. The microemulsion was characterized for droplet size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential, using a dynamic light-scattering technique. The physical and chemical stability of the microemulsion were evaluated via a dynamic light scattering technique and UV-Vis spectrophotometry, respectively. The UV protection of K. galanga rhizome oil and its microemulsion were investigated using an ultraviolet transmittance analyzer. The protective effect of K. galanga rhizome oil against LPS-induced inflammation was investigated via MTT and nitric oxide inhibitory assays. In addition, a hydrogel containing K. galanga rhizome oil microemulsion was developed, stored for 90 days at 4, 30, and 45 °C, and characterized for viscosity, rheology, and pH. The chemical degradation of the main active compound in the microemulsion was analyzed via UV-Vis spectrophotometry. The formulated O/W microemulsion contained a high loading efficiency (101.24 ± 2.08%) of K. galanga rhizome oil, suggesting a successful delivery system of the oil. The size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential values of the microemulsion were optimized and found to be stable when stored at 4, 30, and 45 °C. K. galanga rhizome oil and microemulsion demonstrated moderate sun protective activity and reduced the nitric oxide production induced by LPS in macrophage cells, indicating that microemulsion containing K. galanga rhizome oil may help protect human skin from UV damage and inflammation. A hydrogel containing K. galanga rhizome oil microemulsion was developed as a topical preparation. The hydrogel showed good physical stability after heating and cooling cycles and long-term storage (3 months) at 4 °C. The use of K. galanga rhizome oil as a natural sun-protective substance may provide a protective effect against inflammation on the skin. K. galanga rhizome oil microemulsion was successfully incorporated into the hydrogel and has the potential to be used as a topical sunscreen preparation.

Anti-Inflammatory Activity and Wound Healing Effect of Kaempferia galanga L. Rhizome on the Chemical-Induced Oral Mucosal Ulcer in Wistar Rats

Introduction

Kaempferia galanga L. (K. galanga; local name kencur, Zingiberaceae) is a plant commonly used as a kitchen spice, and empirically it is often used for medicinal purposes. This plant has been shown to have an anti-inflammatory role, but no research has been found on its effect on oral mucosal ulcer. This study aimed to investigate anti-inflammatory activity and wound healing effect of the ethanol extract of K. galanga L. rhizome (EEKG) on the chemical-induced oral mucosal ulcer in Wistar rats.

Methods

In this study, 35 rats were divided into 7 groups (normal, negative, triamcinolone acetonide, and 4 EEKG groups). Acetic acid 70% was used as the oral mucosal ulcer inducer. Parameters observed were macroscopic and microscopic histopathological examinations.

Results

The results revealed that dose of 0.5% of the EEKG was effective in increasing the percent recovery of ulcer area and inflammation sign scores. Meanwhile, doses of 0.5–2% of EEKG were effective in reducing the histopathological score. Interestingly, topical EEKG in our study was more effective compared with triamcinolone acetonide (the conventional therapy for oral mucosal ulceration).

Discussion

The EEKG has been confirmed its anti-inflammatory activity by accelerating the healing process on the chemical-induced oral mucosal ulcer in Wistar rats, based on the percent recovery of the ulcer area, the percent recovery of the inflammation sign score, and the histopathology score.

Conclusion

Taken together, K. galanga L. is very potential to be developed as a prospective phytopharmaceutical for the treatment of oral mucosal ulceration in human after clinical trials.

Kaempferia galanga L.: Progresses in Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Toxicology and Ethnomedicinal Uses

K. galanga is an aromatic medicinal herb. It is locally to India and distributed in China, Myanmar, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. K. galanga is a Traditional Chinese Herb Medicine (TCHM), which has been applied to treat cold, dry cough, toothaches, rheumatism, hypertension and so on. In addition, it has been used widely as spices since its highly aromas. The aim of this review is to compile and update the current progresses of ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of K. galanga. All the data on K. galanga were based on different classical literary works, multiple electronic databases including SciFinder, Web of Science, PubMed, etc. The results showed that ninety-seven compounds have been identified from rhizome of K. galanga, including terpenoids, phenolics, cyclic dipeptides, flavonoids, diarylheptanoids, fatty acids and esters. Modern pharmacology studies revealed that extracts or secondary metabolites of the herb possessed anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-tumorous, anti-bacterial, and anti-angiogenesis effects, which were closely related to its abundant ethnomedicinal uses. In conclusion, although previous research works have provided various information of K. galanga, more in-depth studies are still necessary to systemically evaluate phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, toxicity and quality control of this herb.

In Vitro and In Vivo Anti-Inflammatory Activity of the Rhizomes of Globba pendula Roxb

In this study, we aimed at evaluating in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activity of various extracts of the rhizomes of Globba pendula Roxb. Three extracts ( n-hexane, ethyl acetate, and water) were screened for their inhibitory effect on NO production by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. The ethyl acetate extract of G. pendula rhizomes (EGP) showed a potential effect with an IC50 value of 32.45 µg/mL. For in vivo study, the ethyl acetate extract was further investigated for its anti-inflammatory effect using collagen antibody-induced arthritic mice (CAIA). The level of arthritis in experimental mice significantly reduced ( P < .05) after treatment with EGP at a dose of 500 mg/kg body weight (b.w.). This study also revealed that EGP is orally non-toxic. Ethyl p-methoxy cinamate was identified as the main constituent of EGP, which may result in its anti-inflammatory effect.

Ethnopharmacological analysis from Thai traditional medicine called prasachandaeng remedy as a potential antipyretic drug

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Prasachandaeng (PSD) remedy is a famous antipyretic drug for adults and children in Thai traditional medicine used and is described in Thailand's National List of Essential Medicine. Relationship between the taste of this herbal medicine, ethnopharmacological used and its pharmacological properties was reviewed.

AIMS OF STUDY

Since there has been no scientific report on the antipyretic activity of PSD, aim of this study was to investigate the efficacy related antipyretic drug of the remedy and its 12 herbal ingredients. It involved quality evaluation of raw materials, extraction of PSD and its ingredients, in vitro evaluation of their inhibitory activities on fever mediators, i.e. NO and PGE₂ production in murine macrophage (RAW 264.7) cell line stimulated by lipopolysaccharide, and its stability study of the 95% ethanolic extract of PSD remedy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

PSD remedy was extracted by maceration with 50% and 95% ethanol (PSD50 and PSD95), by decoction with distilled water (PSDW), and hydrolysis of PSDW with 0.1 N HCl (PSDH). The 12 plant ingredients were extracted with 95% ethanol. Quality evaluation of PSD ingredients was performed according to the standard procedures for the quality control of herbal materials. The inhibitory activity on nitric oxide production was determined by the Griess reaction and the inhibition of prostaglandin E₂ production was determined using the ELISA test kit.

RESULTS

PSD ingredients passed the quality standard stipulated for herbal materials. PSD95 exhibited the highest inhibitory activities on the production of NO and PGE₂ with the IC₅₀ values of 42.40 ± 0.72 and 4.65 ± 0.76 μg/mL, respectively. A standard drug acetaminophen (ACP) exhibited inhibition of NO and PGE₂ production with the IC₅₀ values of 99.50 ± 0.43 and 6.110 ± 0.661 μg/mL, respectively. The stability study was suggested two years shelf-life of PSD95. This is the first report on the activity related antipyretic activity of PSD remedy and its ingredients against two fever mediators, NO and PGE₂.

CONCLUSION

The results suggested that the 95% ethanolic extracts of PSD remedy and some of its ingredients, were better than ACP in reducing fever. PSD should be further studied using in vivo models and clinical trials to support its use as an antipyretic drug in Thai traditional medicine.

Anti-Vpr activities of sesqui- and diterpenoids from the roots and rhizomes of Kaempferia candida

New copaene-type and nerolidol-type sesquiterpenoids, 7-hydroxymustakone (1) and 15-hydroxynerolidol (2), and a 15-norlabdane diterpenoid, kaempcandiol (3), together with four known compounds (4-7) were isolated from the chloroform extract of Kaempferia candida roots and rhizomes. The structures of the new compounds 1-3 were elucidated based on 1D and 2D NMR and HRESIMS spectroscopic analyses. The extract of the K. candida roots and rhizomes and all isolated compounds 1-7 possessed HIV-1 viral protein R (Vpr) inhibitory activities on the TREx-HeLa-Vpr cell line at a 5 μM concentration, without detectable cytotoxicity.

Cytotoxic Activity of Ethyl-para-methoxycinnamate from Kaempferia galanga L. on A549 Lung Cancer and B16 Melanoma Cancer Cells

Kaempferia galanga L. belongs to the family of Zingiberaceae, an endangered medicinal plant with pharmacology activities. Ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate (EPMC) is an essential phytoconstituent of K. galanga rhizomes. Several studies have reported that EPMC has anticancer activities in several cancer cells, including CL-6 gallbladder cancer cells, HepG2liver cancer cells, MCF-7 breast cancer cells, and Raji lymphoma cancer cells. However, studies on A549 lung cancer and B16 melanoma cancer cells have not been reported. This study aimed to determine the anticancer activity of EPMC against A549 lung cancer and B16 melanoma cancer cells. EPMC was obtained by extraction using n-hexane, then recrystallized with chloroform. The isolate was then analyzed by thin-layer chromatography (TLC), and the structure was characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Cytotoxic activity was determined under Presto Blue assay. Based on the result, EPMC from K. galanga showed the cytotoxic effect on B16 cells with an IC50 value of 97.09 μg/mL, whereas EPMC showed no significant cytotoxic effect on A549 with an IC50 value of 1407.75 μg/mL. It was concluded that EPMC has potential cytotoxic on B16 melanoma cancer cells, but it showed inactive activity against A549 lung cancer cells. Further molecular mechanism underlying EPMC cytotoxic activity needs to be conducted.

Efficacy and safety of plant-based therapy on recurrent aphthous stomatitis and oral mucositis in the past decade: a systematic review

Oral mucosal inflammation is one of the oral diseases causing pain and reducing the quality of human life. The types of oral mucosal inflammation that commonly found were recurrent aphthous stomatitis (RAS) and oral mucositis (OM). Anti-inflammatory drugs, both synthetic and plant-based, have been used to treat RAS and OM. Plant-based drugs have been attracted the attention of some researchers to minimize the side effects of synthetic drugs. However, a comprehensive review addressing the use of plant-based drugs for RAS and OM therapy, including drug formulation and species of plant, has not yet been reported. Here, we reported the article review of 9 publications derived from the databases of PubMed, ScienceDirect, Cochrane Library, and other additional relevant works, in order to find the effectiveness and safety of plant-based drugs for RAS and OM therapy. This review was written by following the PRISMA guidelines, and the risk of bias of the articles was evaluated using the Oxford Quality Scoring System. It was found that the effective and safe drugs for RAS therapy contained acemannan from Aloe vera and curcumin from Curcuma longa, both in an oral gel formulation. For OM therapy, drugs contained curcumin from Curcuma longa; licorice from Glycyrrhiza glabra; Aloe vera and black mulberry from Morus nigra, in soft tablet, mouthwash solution or mucoadhesive film formulation. In conclusion, the most effective and safest plant-based therapy for RAS is Acemannan 0.5% in oral gel, whereas for OM is Licorice root extract 0.18 mg in mucoadhesive film.

Metabolite Profiling of Javanese Ginger Zingiber purpureum and Identification of Antiseizure Metabolites via a Low-Cost Open-Source Zebrafish Bioassay-Guided Isolation

The rhizomes of Zingiber purpureum, "Bangle", were investigated for its antiseizure properties using a streamlined and cost-effective zebrafish screening strategy and a mouse epilepsy assay. Its hexane extract demonstrated strong antiseizure activity in zebrafish epilepsy assay and was, therefore, selected for bioactivity-guided fractionation. Twelve compounds (1-12) were isolated, and two bioactive phenylbutenoids, trans- (11) and cis-banglene (12), reduced up to 70% of pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizures. These compounds showed moderate activity against PTZ-induced seizures in a mouse epilepsy assay. To understand the specificity of Z. purpureum active compounds, its chemical profile was compared to that of Z. officinale. Their composition was assessed by differential metabolite profiling visualized by a molecular network, which revealed only vanillin derivatives and terpenoids as common metabolites and gave a comprehensive view of Z. purpureum composition. This study demonstrates the efficacy of a streamlined zebrafish epilepsy assay, which is therefore suitable for routine screening in phytochemistry laboratories.

In vitro cytotoxic and toxicological activities of ethanolic extract of Kaempferia galanga Linn. and its active component, ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate, against cholangiocarcinoma

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the cytotoxic, apoptotic, mutagenic and immunomodulatory activities of Kaempferia galanga Linn. (KG) extract and ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate (EPMC) in vitro.

METHODS

The present study investigated the cytotoxic [using the 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2-H-tetrazolium bromide test], apoptotic (using a mitochondrial membrane potential assay), mutagenic (using a micronucleus test) and immunomodulatory (using flow cytometry) activities of the ethanolic extract of KG and its bioactive component, EPMC, against two cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) cell lines, CL-6 and HuCCT1, and one normal human cell line, OUMS-36T-1F.

RESULTS

Both KG extract and EPMC exhibited moderate cytotoxic activity against both CCA cells. The cytotoxic activity was supported by their concentration-dependent induction of apoptosis. CL-6 was most sensitive (3-4 fold) and selective to 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), compared with KG extract and EPMC [median half inhibiting concentration (IC₅₀) and selectivity index (SI) were 23.01 μg/mL and 17.32; 78.41 μg/mL and 4.44; 100.76 μg/mL and 2.20, respectively for 5-FU vs. KG extract vs. EPMC]. HuCCT1 was relatively more sensitive and selective to 5-FU and EPMC than KG extract [median IC₅₀ and SI were 66.03 μg/mL and 6.04; 60.90 μg/mL and 3.65; 156.60 μg/mL and 2.23, respectively for 5-FU vs. EPMC vs. KG extract]. EPMC produced relatively potent cytotoxic activity against polymorphonuclear cells (IC₅₀ = 92.20 μg/mL). KG extract and EPMC exhibited concentration-dependent mutagenic activity, as well as inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6.

CONCLUSION

Considering cytotoxic, apoptotic, immunomodulatory and mutagenic activities, further development of KG as a drug candidate is likely to focus on the oral pharmaceutical formulation of a standardized KG extract rather than isolated compounds.

Phytochemistry, pharmacological activities and uses of traditional medicinal plant Kaempferia galanga L. - An overview

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Kaempferia galanga L. is a stemless, rhizomatous, aromatic, perennial and indigenous herb. It is native to India and distributed in China, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Japan, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Laos, Sudan, Nigeria and South Africa. It is an important Indian medicinal herb that has a long history of use in the treatment of several kinds of human ailments including vata ailments like cough and cold, fever, headache, pains disorders, skin diseases, rheumatic diseases, arthritis, joint fractures, vertigo, wounds, gastritis, antidote for snake venoms, inflammation, blood vomiting, mouth sores and tongue blisters in infants. Moreover, the rhizomes of this plant are highly aromatic and have been used widely as spices, in food flavoring, pickles, cosmetics and in perfumery products.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This paper aimed to provide a critical review of current scenario on K. galanga. This review provides a current data on diversity, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities and traditional uses of K. galanga.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The information and data on K. galanga were collated from various resources like ethnobotanical textbooks and literature databases such as PubMed, Science Direct, Wiley, Springer, Tailor and Francis, Scopus, Inflibnet, Google and Google Scholar.

RESULTS

The forty-nine phytochemicals including esters, terpenoids, flavonoids, thiourea derivatives, polysaccharides, diarylheptanoids, phenolic acids, phenolic glycoside and cyclic lipodepsipeptide have been hitherto isolated and characterized. The major bioactive compounds extracted from the rhizome of K. galanga were ethyl p-methoxycinnamate, ethyl cinnamate, kaempferol, kaempferide, kaempsulfonic acids, kaemgalangol A, xylose, cystargamide B and 3-caren-5-one. Various studies demonstrated that the K. galanga and its constituents possess several pharmacological activities like antimicrobial, antioxidant, amebicidal, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-tuberculosis, anti-dengue, anti-nociceptive, anti-angiogenic, anticancer, hyperlipidemic, hypopigmentary, osteolysis, larvicidal, insecticidal and mosquito repellent, nematocidal, sedative, sniffing, vasorelaxant and wound healing.

CONCLUSION

Kaempferia galanga L. is a valuable medicinal plant which is used traditionally in India to treat a wide variety of ailments. A number of bioactive phytochemicals like esters, terpenoids, flavonoids, polysaccharides, diarylheptanoids, cyclic lipodepsipeptide, phenolic acids and glucoside have been isolated from the rhizomes of K. galanga by several researchers. These phytochemicals are highly bioactive and exhibit various pharmacological activities.

Cytotoxicity, Cell Cycle Arrest, and Apoptosis Induction Activity of Ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate in Cholangiocarcinoma Cell

Objective:

To investigate cytotoxic activity of ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate (EPMC) including its effect on p-glycoprotein (multidrug resistance-1: mdr-1 gene) in human cholangiocarcinoma cell.

Methods:

Cytotoxic activity of EPMC against human cholangiocarcinoma (CL-6), fibroblast (OUMS-36T-1F), and colon cancer (Caco-2) cell lines were assessed using MTT assay. Selectivity index (SI) was determined as the ratio of IC₅₀ (concentration that inhibits cell growth by 50%) of EPMC in OUMS-36T-1F and that in CL-6 cell. Cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in CL-6 cells were investigated by flow cytometry and fluorescent microscopy. Effect of EPMC on mdr-1 gene expression in CL-6 and Caco-2 was determined by real-time PCR.

Results:

The median (95% CI) IC₅₀ values of EPMC in CL-6, OUMS-36T-1F, and Caco-2 were 245.5 (243.1-266.7), 899.60 (855.8-966.3) and 347.0 (340.3-356.9) µg/ml, respectively. The SI value of the compound for the CL-6 cell was 3.70. EPMC at IC₅₀ inhibited CL-6 cell division and induced apoptosis compared to untreated control. EPMC exposure did not induce mdr-1 gene expression in both CL-6 and Caco-2 cells.

Conclusion:

The results suggest the potential role of EPMC in cholangiocarcinoma with a low possibility of drug resistance induction.

Phytogenic compounds do not interfere physiological parameters and growth performances on two Indonesian local breeds of ducks

Aim:

The present study was to investigate the interaction between duck’s breed and phytogenic compounds as feed additives in the diet on blood lipid and hematological profile, welfare, and growth performance.

Materials and Methods:

A total of 200 male day-old local breed ducks (Tegal and Muscovy ducks) were used in this experiment. The first factor was duck breed and the second factor was different phytogenic compounds supplementation in the diet: Garlic, turmeric, ginger, and kencur, at 3% each. The observed variables were the blood lipid profiles comprise high-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein, cholesterol total, triglyceride, blood parameters, welfare (heterophil/lymphocyte [H/L] ratio), and growth performances (feed consumption, body weight gain, feed conversion ratio, and carcass percentage).

Results:

The interaction between breed of ducks and phytogenic compounds had a significant effect on blood triglyceride, but no significant effect on the blood lipid profile, hematological parameters, and growth performances. While, phytogenic compounds in the diet had significant effects on the blood lipid profile, heterophil (H), lymphocyte (L), and H/L ratio of ducks. The breed factors affected HDL and growth performances. Muscovy duck had a higher HDL and growth performance compare to Tegal duck. Among those, garlic most effectively reduced triglyceride level in Tegal duck.

Conclusion:

Phytogenic compounds 3% do not have a negative effect on the physiological parameters of ducks increase ducks welfare (H/L ratio), so it does not affect the growth performances of ducks. Muscovy duck had higher growth performances than Tegal ducks.

Recent Advances in Kaempferia Phytochemistry and Biological Activity: A Comprehensive Review

Background: Plants belonging to the genus Kaempferia (family: Zingiberaceae) are distributed in Asia, especially in the southeast region, and Thailand. They have been widely used in traditional medicines to cure metabolic disorders, inflammation, urinary tract infections, fevers, coughs, hypertension, erectile dysfunction, abdominal and gastrointestinal ailments, asthma, wounds, rheumatism, epilepsy, and skin diseases. Objective: Herein, we reported a comprehensive review, including the traditional applications, biological and pharmacological advances, and phytochemical constituents of Kaempheria species from 1972 up to early 2019. Materials and methods: All the information and reported studies concerning Kaempheria plants were summarized from library and digital databases (e.g., Google Scholar, Sci-finder, PubMed, Springer, Elsevier, MDPI, Web of Science, etc.). The correlation between the Kaempheria species was evaluated via principal component analysis (PCA) and agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC), based on the main chemical classes of compounds. Results: Approximately 141 chemical constituents have been isolated and reported from Kaempferia species, such as isopimarane, abietane, labdane and clerodane diterpenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, phenyl-heptanoids, curcuminoids, tetrahydropyrano-phenolic, and steroids. A probable biosynthesis pathway for the isopimaradiene skeleton is illustrated. In addition, 15 main documented components of volatile oils of Kaempheria were summarized. Biological activities including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticholinesterase, antioxidant, anti-obesity-induced dermatopathy, wound healing, neuroprotective, anti-allergenic, and anti-nociceptive were demonstrated. Conclusions: Up to date, significant advances in phytochemical and pharmacological studies of different Kaempheria species have been witnessed. So, the traditional uses of these plants have been clarified via modern in vitro and in vivo biological studies. In addition, these traditional uses and reported biological results could be correlated via the chemical characterization of these plants. All these data will support the biologists in the elucidation of the biological mechanisms of these plants.

Aromatic ginger (Kaempferia galanga L.) extracts with ameliorative and protective potential as a functional food, beyond its flavor and nutritional benefits

Aromatic ginger (Kaempferia galanga L) is native to India and believed to be originated in Burma. Despite substantial uses in a pickle and south-east Asian cuisines, aromatic ginger is chemically less studied than white and red ginger. Multi-directional investigations have been performed to evaluate chemical composition, nutritional values, ameliorative and protective potential of aromatic ginger (Kaempferia galanga) rhizome (KGR). Macro and micro components analysis confirmed that KGR contains protein, fiber, and high amount of essential minerals (potassium, phosphorous, and magnesium) along with appreciable amounts of iron, manganese, zinc, cobalt, and nickel. The anti-proliferative potential of KGR evaluated nine human cell lines. We have evaluated the anti-proliferative potential of hydrodistillate, extract, and key compound isolated from KGR on nine human cancer cell line and also reporting the safety to normal peritoneal macrophage cells. The current study demonstrates the anticancer potential of the KGR on MDA-MB-231 and WRL-68 cells. Very likely, results can be extrapolated to an animal or human system. Ethyl p-methoxy cinnamate (EPMC) was responsible for inhibiting the proliferation action which varied in a tested cell by intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. The present study demonstrates KGR as safe and high energy value medicinal spices with chemo-preventive action, without toxic phytochemicals, and tolerable other anti-nutritional factors.

Dendrosomal nanocurcumin and exogenous p53 can act synergistically to elicit anticancer effects on breast cancer cells

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) constitutes an important histological subtype of breast cancer with a highly metastatic phenotype. The aim of the current study was to investigate the possible synergism between dendrosomal nanocurcumin (DNC) and exogenously delivered p53 in producing anticancer effects on a TNBC cell line. MTT assay was exploited to determine the viability of MDA-MB-231 cells against DNC and measure the impact of p53 overexpresssion on DNC-related cytotoxicity. Annexin-V/PI staining followed by flow cytometry and wound healing assay were used to evaluate the effects of DNC and exogenous p53, alone and in combination, on apoptosis induction and migratory capacity of MDA-MB-231 cells, respectively. Also, quantitative real-time PCR was applied to analyze the transcript levels of EMT- and metastasis-associated genes. Cell viability measurements demonstrated that DNC suppresses the proliferation of MDA-MB-231 cells in a time- and dose-dependent mode and exogenous p53 elevates the sensitivity of cells to DNC-mediated cytotoxic effects. Apoptosis and wound healing assays indicated that combination treatment with DNC and exogenous p53 leads to significantly increased apoptosis and decreased migration of breast cancer cells, compared with single treatment. The results of gene expression analysis highlighted the high potency of combination strategy to significantly reduce the expression of ZEB1 and BMI1 transcript levels. Altogether, our findings reveal that DNC and exogenous p53 act in a synergistic manner to elicit anticancer effects on MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Therefore, our combination approach might be considered as a promising strategy for the development of new therapeutic modalities against breast cancer.

The antiangiogenic effects of polyisoprenylated cysteinyl amide inhibitors in HUVEC, chick embryo and zebrafish is dependent on the polyisoprenyl moiety

Angiogenesis is essential for solid tumor growth, therapeutic resistance and metastasis, the latest accounting for 90% of cancer deaths. Although angiogenesis is essential for the malignant transformations in solid tumors and therefore is an attractive target, few drugs are available that block tumor angiogenesis. The focus has been to block signaling by receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), such as for vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), whose activation abrogate apoptosis and promote angiogenesis. The polyisoprenylated cysteinyl amide inhibitors (PCAIs) were designed to modulate aberrant polyisoprenylated small G-proteins such as mutant Ras whose constitutive activation promotes RTKs signaling. Since polyisoprenylation is essential for protein-protein interactions and functions of G-proteins, we hypothesized that the PCAIs would disrupt the monomeric G-protein signaling thereby effectively inhibiting angiogenesis. In this study we determined the effects of PCAIs on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) tube formation, cell viability, cell migration and invasion as well as in vivo using the chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) and zebrafish models. At sub- to low micromolar concentrations, the PCAIs inhibit the native and VEGF-stimulated cell migration and invasion as well as tube formation and angiogenesis in CAM and zebrafish embryos. The concentrations that block the angiogenic processes were lower than those that induce cell death. Since angiogenesis is essential for tumor growth but otherwise limited to wound healing, feeding fat cells and uterine wall repair in adults, it is conceivable that these compounds can be developed into safer therapeutics for cancers and retinal neovascularization that leads to loss of vision.

Microwave Assisted Synthesis of p-Methoxycinnamamides and p-Methoxy-β-nitrostyrenes from Ethyl p-methoxycinnamate and Screening their Anti-inflammatory Activity

A new modification reaction of ethyl p-methoxycinnamate (1) to afford a series of p-methoxycinnamamide and p-methoxy-β-nitrostyrene has been developed by using the assistance of the unmodified microwave oven. The synthesized compounds were characterized by using various spectroscopic techniques and furthermore screened for their anti-inflammatory activity by using anti-denaturation of heat bovine serum albumin (BSA) method. The result of bioassay indicated that p-methoxycinnamamide derivatives and p-methoxy-β-nitrostyrenes showed interesting anti-inflammatory activity.

Combination Effect of Antituberculosis Drugs and Ethanolic Extract of Selected Medicinal Plants against Multi-Drug Resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis Isolates

Adverse drug reaction and resistance to antituberculosis drugs remain the causes of tuberculosis therapeutic failure. This research aimed to find the combination effect of standard antituberculosis drugs with Hibiscus sabdariffa L., Kaempferia galanga L., and Piper crocatum N.E. Br against multi-drug resistant (MDR) Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates. Two MDR strains (i.e., isoniazid/ethambutol resistant and rifampicin/streptomycin resistant) of M. tuberculosis were inoculated in Löwenstein–Jensen medium containing a combination of standard antituberculosis drugs and ethanolic extracts of H. sabdariffa calyces, K. galanga rhizomes, and P. crocatum leaves using various concentration combinations of drug and extract. The colony numbers were observed for 8 weeks. The effect of the combination was analyzed using the proportion method which was calculated by the mean percentage of inhibition reduction in a number of colonies on drug–extract containing medium compared to extract-free control medium. The results showed that all three plant extracts achieved good combination effects with rifampicin against the rifampicin/streptomycin resistant strain. Antagonistic effects were, however, observed with streptomycin, ethambutol and isoniazid, therefore calling for caution when using these plants in combination with antituberculosis treatment.