Lung Cancer-Targeting Peptides with Multi-subtype Indication for Combinational Drug Delivery and Molecular Imaging

EGFR Targeting of Liposomal Doxorubicin Improves Recognition and Suppression of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Introduction

Despite improvements in chemotherapy and molecularly targeted therapies, the life expectancy of patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) remains less than 1 year. There is thus a major global need to advance new treatment strategies that are more effective for NSCLC. Drug delivery using liposomal particles has shown success at improving the biodistribution and bioavailability of chemotherapy. Nevertheless, liposomal drugs lack selectivity for the cancer cells and have a limited ability to penetrate the tumor site, which severely limits their therapeutic potential. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is overexpressed in NSCLC tumors in about 80% of patients, thus representing a promising NSCLC-specific target for redirecting liposome-embedded chemotherapy to the tumor site.

Methods

Herein, we investigated the targeting of PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin (Caelyx), a powerful off-the-shelf antitumoral liposomal drug, to EGFR as a therapeutic strategy to improve the specific delivery and intratumoral accumulation of chemotherapy in NSCLC. EGFR-targeting of Caelyx was enabled through its complexing with a polyethylene glycol (PEG)/EGFR bispecific antibody fragment. Tumor targeting and therapeutic potency of our treatment approach were investigated in vitro using a panel of NSCLC cell lines and 3D tumoroid models, and in vivo in a cell line-derived tumor xenograft model.

Results

Combining Caelyx with our bispecific antibody generated uniform EGFR-targeted particles with improved binding and cytotoxic efficacy toward NSCLC cells. Effects were exclusive to cancer cells expressing EGFR, and increments in efficacy positively correlated with EGFR density on the cancer cell surface. The approach demonstrated increased penetration within 3D spheroids and was effective at targeting and suppressing the growth of NSCLC tumors in vivo while reducing drug delivery to the heart.

Conclusion

EGFR targeting represents a successful approach to enhance the selectivity and therapeutic potency of liposomal chemotherapy toward NSCLC.

Recent Progress in Phage-Based Nanoplatforms for Tumor Therapy

Nanodrug delivery systems have demonstrated a great potential for tumor therapy with the development of nanotechnology. Nonetheless, traditional drug delivery systems are faced with issues such as complex synthetic procedures, low reproducibility, nonspecific distribution, impenetrability of biological barrier, systemic toxicity, etc. In recent years, phage-based nanoplatforms have attracted increasing attention in tumor treatment for their regular structure, fantastic carrying property, high transduction efficiency and biosafety. Notably, therapeutic or targeting peptides can be expressed on the surface of the phages through phage display technology, enabling the phage vectors to possess multifunctions. As a result, the drug delivery efficiency on tumor will be vastly improved, thereby enhancing the therapeutic efficacy while reducing the side effects on normal tissues. Moreover, phages can overcome the hindrance of biofilm barrier to elicit antitumor effects, which exhibit great advantages compared with traditional synthetic drug delivery systems. Herein, this review not only summarizes the structure and biology of the phages, but also presents their potential as prominent nanoplatforms against tumor in different pathways to inspire the development of effective nanomedicine.

Untangling the web of intratumor microbiota in lung cancer

Microbes are pivotal in contemporary cancer research, influencing various biological behaviors in cancer. The previous notion that the lung was sterile has been destabilized by the discovery of microbiota in the lower airway and lung, even within tumor tissues. Advances of biotechnology enable the association between intratumor microbiota and lung cancer to be revealed. Nonetheless, the origin and tumorigenicity of intratumor microbiota in lung cancer still remain implicit. Additionally, accumulating evidence indicates that intratumor microbiota might serve as an emerging biomarker for cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and even a therapeutic target across multiple cancer types, including lung cancer. However, research on intratumor microbiota's role in lung cancer is still nascent and warrants more profound exploration. Herein, this paper provides an extensive review of recent advancements in the following fields, including 1) established and emerging biotechnologies utilized to study intratumor microbiota in lung cancer, 2) causation between intratumor microbiota and lung cancer from the perspectives of translocation, cancerogenesis and metastasis, 3) potential application of intratumor microbiota as a novel biomarker for lung cancer diagnosis and prognosis, and 4) promising lung cancer therapies via regulating intratumor microbiota. Moreover, this review addresses the limitations, challenges, and future prospects of studies focused on intratumor microbiota in lung cancer.

Generation of peptides using phage display technology for cancer diagnosis and molecular imaging

Cancer is one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide; nearly 10 million people died from it in 2020. The high mortality rate results from the lack of effective screening approaches where early detection cannot be achieved, reducing the chance of early intervention to prevent cancer development. Non-invasive and deep-tissue imaging is useful in cancer diagnosis, contributing to a visual presentation of anatomy and physiology in a rapid and safe manner. Its sensitivity and specificity can be enhanced with the application of targeting ligands with the conjugation of imaging probes. Phage display is a powerful technology to identify antibody- or peptide-based ligands with effective binding specificity against their target receptor. Tumour-targeting peptides exhibit promising results in molecular imaging, but the application is limited to animals only. Modern nanotechnology facilitates the combination of peptides with various nanoparticles due to their superior characteristics, rendering novel strategies in designing more potent imaging probes for cancer diagnosis and targeting therapy. In the end, a myriad of peptide candidates that aimed for different cancers diagnosis and imaging in various forms of research were reviewed.

Nanotechnology-based approaches overcome lung cancer drug resistance through diagnosis and treatment

Lung cancer continues to be a malignant tumor with high mortality. Two obstacles interfere with curative therapy of lung cancer: (i) poor diagnosis at the early stages, as symptoms are not specific or asymptomatic; and (ii) invariably emerging drug resistance after treatment. Some factors contributing to drug resistance include preexisting genetic/genomic drug-resistant alteration(s); activation of adaptive drug resistance pathways; remodeling of the tumor microenvironment; and pharmacological mechanisms or activation of drug efflux pumps. Despite the mechanisms explored to better understand drug resistance, a gap remains between molecular understanding and clinical application. Therefore, facilitating the translation of basic science into the clinical setting is a great challenge. Nanomedicine has emerged as a promising tool for cancer treatment. Because of their excellent physicochemical properties and enhanced permeability and retention effects, nanoparticles have great potential to revolutionize conventional lung cancer diagnosis and combat drug resistance. Nanoplatforms can be designed as carriers to improve treatment efficacy and deliver multiple drugs in one system, facilitating combination treatment to overcome drug resistance. In this review, we describe the difficulties in lung cancer treatment and review recent research progress on nanoplatforms aimed at early diagnosis and lung cancer treatment. Finally, future perspectives and challenges of nanomedicine are also discussed.

Targeted Imaging of Lung Cancer with Hyperpolarized 129Xe MRI Using Surface-Modified Iron Oxide Nanoparticles as Molecular Contrast Agents

Hyperpolarized 129Xe (HP 129Xe) MRI enables functional imaging of various lung diseases but has been scarcely applied to lung cancer imaging. The aim of this study is to investigate the feasibility of targeted imaging of lung cancer with HP 129Xe MRI using surface-modified iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) as molecular targeting contrast agents. A mouse model of lung cancer (LC) was induced in nine mice by intra-peritoneal injection of urethane. Three months after the urethane administration, the mice underwent lung imaging with HP 129Xe MRI at baseline (0 h). Subsequently, the LC group was divided into two sub-groups: mice administered with polyethylene glycol-coated IONPs (PEG-IONPs, n = 4) and folate-conjugated dextran-coated IONPs (FA@Dex-IONPs, n = 5). The mice were imaged at 3, 6, and 24 h after the intravenous injection of IONPs. FA@Dex-IONPs mice showed a 25% reduction in average signal intensity at cancer sites at 3 h post injection, and a 24% reduction at 24 h post injection. On the other hand, in PEG-IONPs mice, while a signal reduction of approximately 28% was observed at cancer sites at 3 to 6 h post injection, the signal intensity was unchanged from that of the baseline at 24 h. Proton MRI of LC mice (n = 3) was able to detect cancer five months after urethane administration, i.e., later than HP 129Xe MRI (3 months). Furthermore, a significant decrease in averaged 1H T2 values at cancer sites was observed at only 6 h post injection of FA@Dex-IONPs (p < 0.05). As such, the targeted delivery of IONPs to cancer tissue was successfully imaged with HP 129Xe MRI, and their surface modification with folate likely has a high affinity with LC, which causes overexpression of folate receptors.

Diagnostic and therapeutic roles of iron oxide nanoparticles in biomedicine

Nanotechnology changed our understanding of physics and chemics and influenced the biomedical field. Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONs) are one of the first emerging biomedical applications of nanotechnology. The IONs are composed of iron oxide core exhibiting magnetism and coated with biocompatible molecules. The small size, strong magnetism, and biocompatibility of IONs facilitate the application of IONs in the medical imaging field. We listed several clinical available IONs including Resovist (Bayer Schering Pharma, Berlin, Germany) and Feridex intravenous (I.V.)/Endorem as magnetic resonance (MR) contrast agents for liver tumor detection. We also illustrated GastroMARK as a gastrointestinal contrast agent for MR imaging. Recently, IONs named Feraheme for treating iron-deficiency anemia have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration. Moreover, tumor ablation by IONs named NanoTherm has also been discussed. In addition to the clinical application, several potential biomedical applications of IONs including cancer-targeting capability by conjugating IONs with cancer-specific ligands, cell trafficking tools, or tumor ablation agents have also been discussed. With the growing awareness of nanotechnology, further application of IONs is still on the horizon that would shed light on biomedicine.

Auxiliary Diagnosis of Lung Cancer with Magnetic Resonance Imaging Data under Deep Learning

This study was aimed at two image segmentation methods of three-dimensional (3D) U-shaped network (U-Net) and multilevel boundary sensing residual U-shaped network (RUNet) and their application values on the auxiliary diagnosis of lung cancer. In this study, on the basis of the 3D U-Net segmentation method, the multilevel boundary sensing RUNet was worked out after optimization. 92 patients with lung cancer were selected, and their clinical data were counted; meanwhile, the lung nodule detection was performed to obtain the segmentation effect under 3D U-Net. The accuracy of 3D U-Net and multilevel boundary sensing RUNet was compared on lung magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) after lung nodule segmentation. Patients with benign lung tumors were taken as controls; the blood immune biochemical indicators progastrin-releasing peptide (pro-CRP), carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), and neuron-specific enolase (NSE) in patients with malignant lung tumors were analyzed. It was found that the accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity were all greater than 90% under the algorithm-based MRI of benign and malignant tumor patients. Based on the imaging signs for the MRI image of lung nodules, the segmentation effect of the RUNet was clearer than that of the 3D U-Net. In addition, serum levels of pro-CRP, NSE, and CAE in patients with benign lung tumors were 28.9 pg/mL, 12.5 ng/mL, and 10.8 ng/mL, respectively, which were lower than 175.6 pg/mL, 33.6 ng/mL, and 31.9 ng/mL in patients with malignant lung tumors significantly (P < 0.05). Thus, the RUNet image segmentation method was better than the 3D U-Net. The pro-CRP, CEA, and NSE could be used as diagnostic indicators for malignant lung tumors.

Anti-cancer peptide-based therapeutic strategies in solid tumors

Background

Nowadays, conventional medical treatments such as surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy cannot cure all types of cancer. A promising approach to treat solid tumors is the use of tumor-targeting peptides to deliver drugs or active agents selectively.

Result

Introducing beneficial therapeutic approaches, such as therapeutic peptides and their varied methods of action against tumor cells, can aid researchers in the discovery of novel peptides for cancer treatment. The biomedical applications of therapeutic peptides are highly interesting. These peptides, owing to their high selectivity, specificity, small dimensions, high biocompatibility, and easy modification, provide good opportunities for targeted drug delivery. In recent years, peptides have shown considerable promise as therapeutics or targeting ligands in cancer research and nanotechnology.

Conclusion

 This study reviews a variety of therapeutic peptides and targeting ligands in cancer therapy. Initially, three types of tumor-homing and cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are described, and then their applications in breast, glioma, colorectal, and melanoma cancer research are discussed.

The Many Applications of Engineered Bacteriophages-An Overview

Since their independent discovery by Frederick Twort in 1915 and Felix d’Herelle in 1917, bacteriophages have captured the attention of scientists for more than a century. They are the most abundant organisms on the planet, often outnumbering their bacterial hosts by tenfold in a given environment, and they constitute a vast reservoir of unexplored genetic information. The increased prevalence of antibiotic resistant pathogens has renewed interest in the use of naturally obtained phages to combat bacterial infections, aka phage therapy. The development of tools to modify phages, genetically or chemically, combined with their structural flexibility, cargo capacity, ease of propagation, and overall safety in humans has opened the door to a myriad of applications. This review article will introduce readers to many of the varied and ingenious ways in which researchers are modifying phages to move them well beyond their innate ability to target and kill bacteria.

SLC15A4 Serves as a Novel Prognostic Biomarker and Target for Lung Adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

SLC15A family members are known as electrogenic transporters that take up peptides into cells through the proton-motive force. Accumulating evidence indicates that aberrant expression of SLC15A family members may play crucial roles in tumorigenesis and tumor progression in various cancers, as they participate in tumor metabolism. However, the exact prognostic role of each member of the SLC15A family in human lung cancer has not yet been elucidated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We investigated the SLC15A family members in lung cancer through accumulated data from TCGA and other available online databases by integrated bioinformatics analysis to reveal the prognostic value, potential clinical application and underlying molecular mechanisms of SLC15A family members in lung cancer.

RESULTS

Although all family members exhibited an association with the clinical outcomes of patients with NSCLC, we found that none of them could be used for squamous cell carcinoma of the lung and that SLC15A2 and SLC15A4 could serve as biomarkers for lung adenocarcinoma. In addition, we further investigated SLC15A4-related genes and regulatory networks, revealing its core molecular pathways in lung adenocarcinoma. Moreover, the IHC staining pattern of SLC15A4 in lung adenocarcinoma may help clinicians predict clinical outcomes.

CONCLUSION

SLC15A4 could be used as a survival prediction biomarker for lung adenocarcinoma due to its potential role in cell division regulation. However, more studies including large patient cohorts are required to validate the clinical utility of SLC15A4 in lung adenocarcinoma.

Nanotechnology: Breaking the Current Treatment Limits of Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is one of the most rapidly growing malignancies in terms of morbidity and mortality. Although traditional treatments have been used for more than 50 years, it is still far from solving the problems of postoperative risks and systemic toxicity. Emerging targeting and immunotherapy are developing continuously and are gaining recognition; eventually, they face the inevitable challenge of drug resistance. Nanotechnology has several important effects on lung cancer treatment, owing to its unique properties. Several nanoparticle-based treatments have successfully become cancer treatments. Good biocompatibility with higher specific surface area can carry substantial amounts of lung cancer treatment medications while avoiding medication toxicity; editable and modified characteristics give rise to multifunctional nanomedicines; excellent photoelectric effects make lung cancer a multimodal treatment. This article summarizes the breakthroughs achieved by nanotechnology, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy, reflecting the importance and necessity of nanotechnology in the treatment of lung cancer.

The impact of molecular tumor profiling on the design strategies for targeting myeloid leukemia and EGFR/CD44-positive solid tumors

Nanomedicine has emerged as a novel cancer treatment and diagnostic modality, whose design constantly evolves towards increasing the safety and efficacy of the chemotherapeutic and diagnostic protocols. Molecular diagnostics, which create a great amount of data related to the unique molecular signatures of each tumor subtype, have emerged as an important tool for detailed profiling of tumors. They provide an opportunity to develop targeting agents for early detection and diagnosis, and to select the most effective combinatorial treatment options. Alongside, the design of the nanoscale carriers needs to cope with novel trends of molecular screening. Also, multiple targeting ligands needed for robust and specific interactions with the targeted cell populations have to be introduced, which should result in substantial improvements in safety and efficacy of the cancer treatment. This article will focus on novel design strategies for nanoscale drug delivery systems, based on the unique molecular signatures of myeloid leukemia and EGFR/CD44-positive solid tumors, and the impact of novel discoveries in molecular tumor profiles on future chemotherapeutic protocols.

Discovery of degradable niclosamide derivatives able to specially inhibit small cell lung cancer (SCLC)

Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is exceedingly tough to treat and easy to develop resistance upon long use of the first-line drug carboplatin or radiotherapy. Novel medicines effective and specific against SCLC are greatly needed. Herein, we focused on the discovery of such a medicine by exploring a drug niclosamide with repurposing strategy. Initial screening efforts revealed that niclosamide, an anthelmintic drug, possessed the in vitro anticancer activity and an obvious sensitivity towards SCLC. This observation inspired the evaluation for two different kinds of niclosamide derivatives. 2 with a degradable ester as a linker exhibited the comparable activity but slightly inferior selectivity to SCLC, by contrast, the cytotoxicities of 4 and 5 with non-degradable ether linkages completely disappeared, clearly validating the importance of 2-free hydroxyl group or 2-hydroxyl group released in the antitumor activity. Mechanism study unfolded that, similar to niclosamide, 2 inhibited growth of cancer cells via p 53 activation and subsequent underwent cytochrome c dependent apoptosis. Further structural modification to afford phosphate sodium 8 with significantly enhanced aqueous solubility (22.1 mg/mL) and a good selectivity towards SCLC demonstrated more promising druggability profiles. Accordingly, niclosamide as an attractive lead hold a huge potential for developing targeted anti-SCLC drugs.

[Screening and Identification of the Peptides Specifically Binding to Human Non-small Cell Lung Cancer NCI-H1299 Cells]

BACKGROUND

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the most common histological type of lung cancer, and one of the malignant tumor with the highest mortality. As the main part of the optical molecular imaging probe, peptide can realize the early screening and diagnosis of tumor and improve the survival rate of patients. The aim of this study was to screen the small-molecule peptide that highly binds to NSCLC NCI-H1299 cells using in vivo phage display technology and to identify their binding specificity by in vitro experiment.

METHODS

To prepare a tumor-bearing nude mouse model of NCI-H1299 cells, after 3 rounds of in vivo screening with Ph.D.-C7CTM Peptide Library, phage clones were randomly picked, using immunohistochemistry and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to identify the affinity of phage clones to NCI-H1299 cells. The positive monoclonal phages DNA was extracted and sequenced to obtain the amino acid sequence of the peptides. The peptides with the highest repetition rate was chemically synthesized and labeled with fluorescein (FITC) to prepare optical molecular probe. We preliminary identified the specificity of the probe binding to lung cancer cells by in vitro experiment.

RESULTS

After three rounds of in vivo screening, the phages enrichment rate was 341.3 times compared with the first round. Immunohistochemical staining showed that with the increase of screening times, the phages binding to tumor tissues continued to increase, and the binding amount was significantly higher than normal tissues; ELISA results showed that 20 clones among the 30 randomly selected phage clones were positive. After sequencing, the peptide with the highest repetition rate was synthesized and named NSP1; Methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium assay (MTT) and would healing assay showed that NSP1 will not affect cell proliferation and migration. Flow cytometry and immunofluorescence showed specific binding of NSP1 to NCI-H1299 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

We successfully obtained the peptide NSP1 that specifically binds to lung cancer NCI-H1299 cells by in vivo phage display, which provide a theoretical basis for NSCLC early diagnosis and targeted therapy.

Nanotechnology in pulmonary medicine

Nanotechnology in medicine—nanomedicine—is extensively employed to diagnose, treat, and prevent pulmonary diseases. Over the last few years, this brave new world has made remarkable progress, offering opportunities to address historical clinical challenges in pulmonary diseases including multidrug resistance, adverse side effects of conventional therapeutic agents, novel imaging, and earlier disease detection. Nanomedicine is also being applied to tackle the new emerging infectious diseases, including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV), influenza A virus subtype H1N1 (A/H1N1), and more recently, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). In this review we provide both a historical overview of the application of nanomedicine to respiratory diseases and more recent cutting-edge approaches such as nanoparticle-mediated combination therapies, novel double-targeted nondrug delivery system for targeting, stimuli-responsive nanoparticles, and theranostic imaging in the diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary diseases.

Nanomedicine in lung cancer: Current states of overcoming drug resistance and improving cancer immunotherapy

Lung cancer is considered to cause the most cancer-related deaths worldwide. Due to the deficiency in early-stage diagnostics and local invasion or distant metastasis, the first line of treatment for most patients unsuitable for surgery is chemotherapy, targeted therapy or immunotherapy. Nanocarriers with the function of improving drug solubility, in vivo stability, drug distribution in the body, and sustained and targeted delivery, can effectively improve the effect of drug treatment and reduce toxic and side effects, and have been used in clinical treatment for lung cancer and many types of cancers. Here, we review nanoparticle (NP) formulation for lung cancer treatment including liposomes, polymers, and inorganic NPs via systemic and inhaled administration, and highlight the works of overcoming drug resistance and improving cancer immunotherapy. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease.

Antinociceptive Effects of Shenling Baizhu through PI3K-Akt-mTOR Signaling Pathway in a Mouse Model of Bone Metastasis with Small-Cell Lung Cancer

Shenling Baizhu additive powder (SLBZ-AP), a formulation of a variety of natural medicinal plants, has clinical efficacy in treating cancers in previous studies. We explored the effect of SLBZ-AP in bone metastasis of lung cancer (BMLC) mice, and the possible mechanism involved was further investigated in the present study. Mice model of BMLC was made and treated with SLBZ-AP. Pain behavioral tests were performed to explore the effect on BMLC-induced pain in mice. TUNEL staining was used to investigate apoptosis. The mRNA expression of markers in the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway was measured by qPCR, and protein expression was detected by western blotting and immunohistochemistry analysis. SLBZ-AP relieved BMLC-induced pain and prolonged animals' survival, promoted cell apoptosis in the marrow from the tibia of BMLC mice, and inhibited mRNA and protein expression of AKT, mTOR, P70S6, and VEGF, as well as protein expression of p-AKT, p-mTOR, p-P70S6, and VEGF upregulation in the marrow of tibia induced by BMLC, an effect which was similar to rapamycin. Our results suggested that SLBZ-AP may have antinociceptive effect and prolong survival of BMLC mice at least partially by inhibiting cell proliferation and promoting apoptosis through the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. SLBZ-AP may be a potential candidate for BMLC therapy.

Animal Models for the Evaluation of Theranostic Radiopharmaceuticals

BACKGROUND

Theranostic is a new field of medicine that combines diagnosis and patient- specific targeted treatment. In the theranostic approach, it is aimed to detect diseased cells by using targeted molecules using disease-specific biological pathways and then destroy them by cellular irradiation without damaging other tissues. Diagnostic tests guide the use of specific therapeutic agents by demonstrating the presence of the receptor/molecule on the target tissue. As the therapeutic agent is administered to patients who have a positive diagnostic test, the efficacy of treatment in these patients is largely guaranteed. As therapeutic efficacy can be predicted by therapeutic agents, it is also possible to monitor the response to treatment. Many diagnostic and therapeutic procedures in nuclear medicine are classified as theranostic. ¹³¹I treatment and scintigraphy are the best examples of the theranostic application. Likewise, ¹⁷⁷Lu / ⁹⁰Y octreotate for neuroendocrine tumors, ¹⁷⁷Lu PSMA for metastatic or treatment-resistant prostate cancer, ⁹⁰Y SIRT for metastatic liver cancer, and ²²³Ra for bone metastasis of prostate cancer are widely used. Moreover, nanoparticles are one of the most rapidly developing subjects of theranostics. Diagnostic and therapeutic agents that show fluorescent, ultrasonic, magnetic, radioactive, contrast, pharmacological drug or antibody properties are loaded into the nanoparticle to provide theranostic use.

METHODS

This article reviewed general aspects of preclinical models for theranostic research, and presented examples from the literature.

CONCLUSION

To achieve successful results in rapidly accelerating personalized treatment research of today, the first step is to conduct appropriate preclinical studies.

Recent Trends of the Bio-Inspired Nanoparticles in Cancer Theranostics

In recent years, various nanomaterials have emerged as an exciting tool in cancer theranostic applications due to their multifunctional property and intrinsic molecular property aiding effective diagnosis, imaging, and successful therapy. However, chemically synthesized nanoparticles have several issues related to the cost, toxicity and effectiveness. In this context, bio-inspired nanoparticles (NPs) held edges over conventionally synthesized nanoparticles due to their low cost, easy synthesis and low toxicity. In this present review article, a detailed overview of the cancer theranostics applications of various bio-inspired has been provided. This includes the recent examples of liposomes, lipid nanoparticles, protein nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles, and viral nanoparticles. Finally, challenges and the future scopes of these NPs in cancer therapy and diagnostics applications are highlighted.

Novel human Ab against vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 shows therapeutic potential for leukemia and prostate cancer

Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) is highly expressed in tumor‐associated endothelial cells, where it modulates tumor‐promoting angiogenesis, and it is also found on the surface of tumor cells. Currently, there are no Ab therapeutics targeting VEGFR2 approved for the treatment of prostate cancer or leukemia. Therefore, development of novel efficacious anti‐VEGFR2 Abs will benefit cancer patients. We used the Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology human Ab library and affinity maturation to develop a fully human Ab, anti‐VEGFR2‐AF, which shows excellent VEGFR2 binding activity. Anti‐VEGFR2‐AF bound Ig‐like domain 3 of VEGFR2 extracellular region to disrupt the interaction between VEGF‐A and VEGFR2, neutralizing downstream signaling of the receptor. Moreover, anti‐VEGFR2‐AF inhibited capillary structure formation and exerted Ab‐dependent cell‐mediated cytotoxicity and complement‐dependent cytotoxicity in vitro. We found that VEGFR2 is expressed in PC‐3 human prostate cancer cell line and associated with malignancy and metastasis of human prostate cancer. In a PC‐3 xenograft mouse model, treatment with anti‐VEGFR2‐AF repressed tumor growth and angiogenesis as effectively and safely as US FDA‐approved anti‐VEGFR2 therapeutic, ramucirumab. We also report for the first time that addition of anti‐VEGFR2 Ab can enhance the efficacy of docetaxel in the treatment of a prostate cancer mouse model. In HL‐60 human leukemia‐xenografted mice, anti‐VEGFR2‐AF showed better efficacy than ramucirumab with prolonged survival and reduced metastasis of leukemia cells to ovaries and lymph nodes. Our findings suggest that anti‐VEGFR2‐AF has strong potential as a cancer therapy that could directly target VEGFR2‐expressing tumor cells in addition to its anti‐angiogenic action.

Recent Progress in the Theranostics Application of Nanomedicine in Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related death worldwide. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) causes around 80% to 90% of deaths. The lack of an early diagnosis and inefficiency in conventional therapies causes poor prognosis and overall survival of lung cancer patients. Recent progress in nanomedicine has encouraged the development of an alternative theranostics strategy using nanotechnology. The interesting physico-chemical properties in the nanoscale have generated immense advantages for nanoparticulate systems for the early detection and active delivery of drugs for a better theranostics strategy for lung cancer. This present review provides a detailed overview of the recent progress in the theranostics application of nanoparticles including liposomes, polymeric, metal and bio-nanoparticles. Further, we summarize the advantages and disadvantages of each approach considering the improvement for the lung cancer theranostics.

Development of Severe Combined Immunodeficient (SCID) Pig Models for Translational Cancer Modeling: Future Insights on How Humanized SCID Pigs Can Improve Preclinical Cancer Research

Within the last decade there have been several severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) pig models discovered or genetically engineered. The animals have mutations in ARTEMIS, IL2RG, or RAG1/2 genes, or combinations thereof, providing SCID pigs with NK cells, but deficient in T and B cells, or deficient in NK, T, and B cells for research studies. Biocontainment facilities and positive pressure isolators are developed to limit pathogen exposure and prolong the life of SCID pigs. Raising SCID pigs in such facilities allows for completion of long-term studies such as xenotransplantation of human cells. Ectopically injected human cancer cell lines develop into tumors in SCID pigs, thus providing a human-sized in vivo model for evaluating imaging methods to improve cancer detection and therapeutic research and development. Immunocompromised pigs have the potential to be immunologically humanized by xenotransplantation with human hematopoietic stem cells, peripheral blood leukocytes, or fetal tissue. These cells can be introduced through various routes including injection into fetal liver or the intraperitoneal (IP) space, or into piglets by intravenous, IP, and intraosseous administration. The development and maintenance of transplanted human immune cells would be initially (at least) dependent on immune signaling from swine cells. Compared to mice, swine share higher homology in immune related genes with humans. We hypothesize that the SCID pig may be able to support improved engraftment and differentiation of a wide range of human immune cells as compared to equivalent mouse models. Humanization of SCID pigs would thus provide a valuable model system for researchers to study interactions between human tumor and human immune cells. Additionally, as the SCID pig model is further developed, it may be possible to develop patient-derived xenograft models for individualized therapy and drug testing. We thus theorize that the individualized therapeutic approach would be significantly improved with a humanized SCID pig due to similarities in size, metabolism, and physiology. In all, porcine SCID models have significant potential as an excellent preclinical animal model for therapeutic testing.

Theranostics and metabolotheranostics for precision medicine in oncology

Most diseases, especially cancer, would significantly benefit from precision medicine where treatment is shaped for the individual. The concept of theragnostics or theranostics emerged around 2002 to describe the incorporation of diagnostic assays into the selection of therapy for this purpose. Increasingly, theranostics has been used for strategies that combine noninvasive imaging-based diagnostics with therapy. Within the past decade theranostic imaging has transformed into a rapidly expanding field that is located at the interface of diagnosis and therapy. A critical need in cancer treatment is to minimize damage to normal tissue. Molecular imaging can be applied to identify targets specific to cancer with imaging, design agents against these targets to visualize their delivery, and monitor response to treatment, with the overall purpose of minimizing collateral damage. Genomic and proteomic profiling can provide an extensive 'fingerprint' of each tumor. With this cancer fingerprint, theranostic agents can be designed to personalize treatment for precision medicine of cancer, and minimize damage to normal tissue. Here, for the first time, we have introduced the term 'metabolotheranostics' to describe strategies where disease-based alterations in metabolic pathways detected by MRS are specifically targeted with image-guided delivery platforms to achieve disease-specific therapy. The versatility of MRI and MRS in molecular and functional imaging makes these technologies especially important in theranostic MRI and 'metabolotheranostics'. Our purpose here is to provide insights into the capabilities and applications of this exciting new field in cancer treatment with a focus on MRI and MRS.

A set of cancer stem cell homing peptides associating with the glycan moieties of glycosphingolipids

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are currently believed to be involved in tumor metastasis and relapse. And treatments against CSCs are well concerned issues. Peptides targeting to mouse and human CSCs were screened from an M13 phage display library. The first subset of cancer stem cell homing peptides (CSC HPs), CSC HP-1 to -12, were screened with mouse EMT6 breast cancer stem cells. Among them, CSC HP-1, CSC HP-3, CSC HP-8, CSC HP-9, and CSC HP-10 can bind to mouse CT26 colon CSCs; CSC HP-1, CSC HP-2, CSC HP-3, and CSC HP-8 can bind to mouse Hepa1-6 liver CSCs; as well as CSC HP-1, CSC HP-2, CSC HP-3, CSC HP-8, CSC HP-9, CSC HP-10, and CSC HP-11 can bind to human PANC-1 pancreatic CSCs. The second subset of cancer stem cell homing peptides, CSC HP-hP1 to -hP3, were screened with human PANC-1 pancreatic CSCs. Both CSC HP-hP1 and CSC HP-hP2 were demonstrated able to bind mouse EMT6, CT26 and Hepa1-6 CSCs as well as human colorectal HT29 and lung H1650 CSCs. CSC HP-1 and CSC HP-hP1 could strongly associate with the Globo 4 and Lewis Y glycan epitopes coupled on a microarray chip or Globo 4 and Globo H conjugated on bovine serum albumin. CSC HP-10, CSC HP-11 and CSC HP-hP2 could associate with the disialylated saccharide Neu5Ac-α-2,6-Gal-β-1,3-(Neu5Ac-α-2,6)-GalNAc coupled on a microarray chip. These results indicate that the CSC HPs may target to the known stem cell glycan markers GbH and Lewis Y as well as the disialylated saccharide.