1
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Obaha A, Novinec M. Regulation of Peptidase Activity beyond the Active Site in Human Health and Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:17120. [PMID: 38069440 PMCID: PMC10707025 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242317120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
This comprehensive review addresses the intricate and multifaceted regulation of peptidase activity in human health and disease, providing a comprehensive investigation that extends well beyond the boundaries of the active site. Our review focuses on multiple mechanisms and highlights the important role of exosites, allosteric sites, and processes involved in zymogen activation. These mechanisms play a central role in shaping the complex world of peptidase function and are promising potential targets for the development of innovative drugs and therapeutic interventions. The review also briefly discusses the influence of glycosaminoglycans and non-inhibitory binding proteins on enzyme activities. Understanding their role may be a crucial factor in the development of therapeutic strategies. By elucidating the intricate web of regulatory mechanisms that control peptidase activity, this review deepens our understanding in this field and provides a roadmap for various strategies to influence and modulate peptidase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marko Novinec
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 113, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
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2
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Kozak A, Mikhaylov G, Khodakivskyi P, Goun E, Turk B, Vasiljeva O. A New Cathepsin D Targeting Drug Delivery System Based on Immunoliposomes Functionalized with Lipidated Pepstatin A. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2464. [PMID: 37896224 PMCID: PMC10609775 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15102464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 10/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Cathepsin D is an aspartic protease and one of the most abundant proteases. It is overexpressed in many cancers and plays an important role in tumor development, progression, and metastasis. While it is a physiologically intracellular protein, cathepsin D is secreted into the extracellular matrix under pathological conditions, making it an appealing target for drug delivery systems. Here, we present the development and evaluation of a new delivery system for tumor targeting based on immunoliposomes functionalized with pepstatin A-a natural peptide inhibitor of cathepsin D. A lipid tail was added to pepstatin A, enabling its incorporation into the liposomal lipid bilayer. The successful targeting of cathepsin D was confirmed using recombinant cathepsin D and in tumor cell lines, showing the feasibility of this targeting approach and its potential for in vivo use in theragnostic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreja Kozak
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Georgy Mikhaylov
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- SwissLumix SARL, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Pavlo Khodakivskyi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Elena Goun
- SwissLumix SARL, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Boris Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Olga Vasiljeva
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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3
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Cysteine Cathepsins in Breast Cancer: Promising Targets for Fluorescence-Guided Surgery. Mol Imaging Biol 2023; 25:58-73. [PMID: 36002710 PMCID: PMC9971096 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-022-01768-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The majority of breast cancer patients is treated with breast-conserving surgery (BCS) combined with adjuvant radiation therapy. Up to 40% of patients has a tumor-positive resection margin after BCS, which necessitates re-resection or additional boost radiation. Cathepsin-targeted near-infrared fluorescence imaging during BCS could be used to detect residual cancer in the surgical cavity and guide additional resection, thereby preventing tumor-positive resection margins and associated mutilating treatments. The cysteine cathepsins are a family of proteases that play a major role in normal cellular physiology and neoplastic transformation. In breast cancer, the increased enzymatic activity and aberrant localization of many of the cysteine cathepsins drive tumor progression, proliferation, invasion, and metastasis. The upregulation of cysteine cathepsins in breast cancer cells indicates their potential as a target for intraoperative fluorescence imaging. This review provides a summary of the current knowledge on the role and expression of the most important cysteine cathepsins in breast cancer to better understand their potential as a target for fluorescence-guided surgery (FGS). In addition, it gives an overview of the cathepsin-targeted fluorescent probes that have been investigated preclinically and in breast cancer patients. The current review underscores that cysteine cathepsins are highly suitable molecular targets for FGS because of favorable expression and activity patterns in virtually all breast cancer subtypes. This is confirmed by cathepsin-targeted fluorescent probes that have been shown to facilitate in vivo breast cancer visualization and tumor resection in mouse models and breast cancer patients. These findings indicate that cathepsin-targeted FGS has potential to improve treatment outcomes in breast cancer patients.
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4
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Biasizzo M, Javoršek U, Vidak E, Zarić M, Turk B. Cysteine cathepsins: A long and winding road towards clinics. Mol Aspects Med 2022; 88:101150. [PMID: 36283280 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2022.101150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Biomedical research often focuses on properties that differentiate between diseased and healthy tissue; one of the current focuses is elevated expression and altered localisation of proteases. Among these proteases, dysregulation of cysteine cathepsins can frequently be observed in inflammation-associated diseases, which tips the functional balance from normal physiological to pathological manifestations. Their overexpression and secretion regularly exhibit a strong correlation with the development and progression of such diseases, making them attractive pharmacological targets. But beyond their mostly detrimental role in inflammation-associated diseases, cysteine cathepsins are physiologically highly important enzymes involved in various biological processes crucial for maintaining homeostasis and responding to different stimuli. Consequently, several challenges have emerged during the efforts made to translate basic research data into clinical applications. In this review, we present both physiological and pathological roles of cysteine cathepsins and discuss the clinical potential of cysteine cathepsin-targeting strategies for disease management and diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Biasizzo
- Jozef Stefan Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jamova 39, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia; International Postgraduate School Jozef Stefan, Jamova 39, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Urban Javoršek
- Jozef Stefan Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jamova 39, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia; International Postgraduate School Jozef Stefan, Jamova 39, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Eva Vidak
- Jozef Stefan Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jamova 39, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia; International Postgraduate School Jozef Stefan, Jamova 39, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Miki Zarić
- Jozef Stefan Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jamova 39, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia; International Postgraduate School Jozef Stefan, Jamova 39, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Boris Turk
- Jozef Stefan Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jamova 39, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Vecna pot 113, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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5
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Zamyatnin AA, Gregory LC, Townsend PA, Soond SM. Beyond basic research: the contribution of cathepsin B to cancer development, diagnosis and therapy. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2022; 26:963-977. [PMID: 36562407 DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2022.2161888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In view of other candidate proteins from the cathepsin family of proteases holding great potential in being targeted during cancer therapy, the importance of Cathepsin B (CtsB) stands out as being truly exceptional. Based on its contribution to oncogenesis, its intimate connection with regulating apoptosis and modulating extracellular and intracellular functions through its secretion or compartmentalized subcellular localization, collectively highlight its complex molecular involvement with a myriad of normal and pathological regulatory processes. Despite its complex functional nature, CtsB is emerging as one of the few cathepsin proteases that has been extensively researched to yield tangible outcomes for cancer therapy. AREAS COVERED In this article, we review the scientific literature that has justified or shaped the importance of CtsB expression in cancer progression, from the perspective of highlighting a paradigm that is rapidly changing from basic research toward a broader clinical and translational context. EXPERT OPINION In doing so, we detail its maturation as a diagnostic marker through describing the development of CtsB-specific Activity-Based Probes, the rapid evolution of these toward a new generation of Prodrugs, and the evaluation of these in model systems for their therapeutic potential as anti-cancer agents in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey A Zamyatnin
- School of Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK.,Institute of Molecular Medicine, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russian Federation.,Department of Biotechnology, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi, Russia.,Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Levy C Gregory
- School of Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
| | - Paul A Townsend
- School of Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK.,Institute of Molecular Medicine, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Surinder M Soond
- School of Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK.,Institute of Molecular Medicine, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russian Federation
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6
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Yang X, Yin H, Zhang D, Peng L, Li K, Cui F, Xia C, Li Z, Huang H. Bibliometric Analysis of Cathepsin B Research From 2011 to 2021. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 9:898455. [PMID: 35872750 PMCID: PMC9301081 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.898455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cathepsin B (CTSB) is a lysosomal protease implicated in the progression of various diseases. A large number of CTSB-related studies have been conducted to date. However, there is no comprehensive bibliometric analysis on this subject. In our study, we performed quantitative analysis of CTSB-related publications retrieved from the Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE) of the Web of Science Core Collection (reference period: 2011–2021). A total of 3,062 original articles and reviews were retrieved. The largest number of publications were from USA (n = 847, 27.66%). The research output of each country showed positive correlation with gross domestic product (GDP) (r = 0.9745, P < 0.0001). Active collaborations between countries/regions were also observed. Reinheckel T and Sloane BF were perhaps the most impactful researchers in the research landscape of CTSB. Plos ONE was the most prevalent (119/3,062, 3.89%) and cited journal (3,021 citations). Comprehensive analysis of the top citations, co-citations, and keywords was performed to acquire the theoretical basis and hotspots of CTSB-related research. The main topics included CTSB-related cancers and inflammatory diseases, CTSB-associated cell death pattern, and the applications of CTSB. These results provide comprehensive insights into the current status of global CTSB-related research especially in pancreas, which is worthy of continued follow-up by practitioners and clinicians in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoli Yang
- Department of Gastroenterology, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Navy/Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hua Yin
- Department of Gastroenterology, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Navy/Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Deyu Zhang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Navy/Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lisi Peng
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Navy/Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Keliang Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Fang Cui
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Navy/Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chuanchao Xia
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Navy/Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhaoshen Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Navy/Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Zhaoshen Li
| | - Haojie Huang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Navy/Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
- Haojie Huang
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7
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Luo R, Liu H, Cheng Z. Protein scaffolds: Antibody alternative for cancer diagnosis and therapy. RSC Chem Biol 2022; 3:830-847. [PMID: 35866165 PMCID: PMC9257619 DOI: 10.1039/d2cb00094f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Although antibodies are well developed and widely used in cancer therapy and diagnostic fields, some defects remain, such as poor tissue penetration, long in vivo metabolic retention, potential cytotoxicity, patent limitation, and high production cost. These issues have led scientists to explore and develop novel antibody alternatives. Protein scaffolds are small monomeric proteins with stable tertiary structures and mutable residues, which emerged in the 1990s. By combining robust gene engineering and phage display techniques, libraries with sufficient diversity could be established for target binding scaffold selection. Given the properties of small size, high affinity, and excellent specificity and stability, protein scaffolds have been applied in basic research, and preclinical and clinical fields over the past two decades. To date, more than 20 types of protein scaffolds have been developed, with the most frequently used being affibody, adnectin, ANTICALIN®, DARPins, and knottin. In this review, we focus on the protein scaffold applications in cancer therapy and diagnosis in the last 5 years, and discuss the pros and cons, and strategies of optimization and design. Although antibodies are well developed and widely used in cancer therapy and diagnostic fields, some defects remain, such as poor tissue penetration, long in vivo metabolic retention, potential cytotoxicity, patent limitation, and high production cost.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Renli Luo
- Department of Molecular Medicine, College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University Shenyang China
| | - Hongguang Liu
- Department of Molecular Medicine, College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University Shenyang China
| | - Zhen Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Molecular Imaging Center, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences Shanghai 201203 China
- Drug Discovery Shandong Laboratory, Bohai Rim Advanced Research Institute for Drug Discovery Yantai Shandong 264117 China
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8
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Saad MA, Xavierselvan M, Sharif HA, Selfridge S, Pawle R, Varvares M, Mallidi S, Hasan T. Dual Function Antibody Conjugates for Multimodal Imaging and Photoimmunotherapy of Cancer Cells. Photochem Photobiol 2022; 98:220-231. [PMID: 34379796 PMCID: PMC10038131 DOI: 10.1111/php.13501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Precision imaging, utilizing molecular targeted agents, is an important tool in cancer diagnostics and guiding therapies. While there are limitations associated with single mode imaging probes, multimodal molecular imaging probes enabling target visualization through complementary imaging technologies provides an attractive alternative. However, there are several challenges associated with designing molecular probes carrying contrast agents for complementary multimodal imaging. Here, we propose a dual function antibody conjugate (DFAC) comprising an FDA approved photosensitizer Benzoporphyrin derivative (BPD) and a naphthalocyanine-based photoacoustic dye (SiNc(OH)) for multimodal infrared (IR) imaging. While fluorescence imaging, through BPD, provides sensitivity, complementing it with photoacoustic imaging, through SiNc(OH), provides a depth-resolved spatial resolution much beyond the optical diffusion limits of fluorescence measurements. Through a series of in vitro experiments, we demonstrate the development and utilization of DFACs for multimodal imaging and photodynamic treatment of squamous cell carcinoma (A431) cell line. The proposed DFACs have potential use in precision imaging applications such as guiding tumor resection surgeries and photodynamic treatment of residual microscopic disease thereby minimizing local recurrence. The data demonstrated in this study merits further investigation for its preclinical and clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad A. Saad
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Marvin Xavierselvan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Technology Center, Tufts University, Medford, MA
| | | | | | | | - Mark Varvares
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Harvard Medical School, The Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston, MA
| | - Srivalleesha Mallidi
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Technology Center, Tufts University, Medford, MA
| | - Tayyaba Hasan
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
- Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA
- Corresponding author (Tayyaba Hasan)
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9
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Abstract
Cysteine cathepsins are proteases critical in physiopathological processes and show potential as targets or biomarkers for diseases and medical conditions. The 11 members of the cathepsin family are redundant in some cases but remarkably independent of others, demanding the development of both pan-cathepsin targeting tools as well as probes that are selective for specific cathepsins with little off-target activity. This review addresses the diverse design strategies that have been employed to accomplish this tailored selectivity among cysteine cathepsin targets and the imaging modalities incorporated. The power of these diverse tools is contextualized by briefly highlighting the nature of a few prominent cysteine cathepsins, their involvement in select diseases, and the application of cathepsin imaging probes in research spanning basic biochemical studies to clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelton A Schleyer
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, 1345 Center Dr, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
| | - Lina Cui
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, 1345 Center Dr, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
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10
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Berland L, Kim L, Abousaway O, Mines A, Mishra S, Clark L, Hofman P, Rashidian M. Nanobodies for Medical Imaging: About Ready for Prime Time? Biomolecules 2021; 11:637. [PMID: 33925941 PMCID: PMC8146371 DOI: 10.3390/biom11050637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in medical treatments have been revolutionary in shaping the management and treatment landscape of patients, notably cancer patients. Over the last decade, patients with diverse forms of locally advanced or metastatic cancer, such as melanoma, lung cancers, and many blood-borne malignancies, have seen their life expectancies increasing significantly. Notwithstanding these encouraging results, the present-day struggle with these treatments concerns patients who remain largely unresponsive, as well as those who experience severely toxic side effects. Gaining deeper insight into the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying these variable responses will bring us closer to developing more effective therapeutics. To assess these mechanisms, non-invasive imaging techniques provide valuable whole-body information with precise targeting. An example of such is immuno-PET (Positron Emission Tomography), which employs radiolabeled antibodies to detect specific molecules of interest. Nanobodies, as the smallest derived antibody fragments, boast ideal characteristics for this purpose and have thus been used extensively in preclinical models and, more recently, in clinical early-stage studies as well. Their merit stems from their high affinity and specificity towards a target, among other factors. Furthermore, their small size (~14 kDa) allows them to easily disperse through the bloodstream and reach tissues in a reliable and uniform manner. In this review, we will discuss the powerful imaging potential of nanobodies, primarily through the lens of imaging malignant tumors but also touching upon their capability to image a broader variety of nonmalignant diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Léa Berland
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA; (L.B.); (L.K.); (O.A.); (A.M.); (S.M.); (L.C.)
- Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, INSERM, IRCAN, 06100 Nice, France;
| | - Lauren Kim
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA; (L.B.); (L.K.); (O.A.); (A.M.); (S.M.); (L.C.)
- Department of Chemistry and Bioengineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Omar Abousaway
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA; (L.B.); (L.K.); (O.A.); (A.M.); (S.M.); (L.C.)
| | - Andrea Mines
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA; (L.B.); (L.K.); (O.A.); (A.M.); (S.M.); (L.C.)
| | - Shruti Mishra
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA; (L.B.); (L.K.); (O.A.); (A.M.); (S.M.); (L.C.)
| | - Louise Clark
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA; (L.B.); (L.K.); (O.A.); (A.M.); (S.M.); (L.C.)
| | - Paul Hofman
- Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, INSERM, IRCAN, 06100 Nice, France;
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Pathology, FHU OncoAge, Nice Center Hospital, 06100 Nice, France
| | - Mohammad Rashidian
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA; (L.B.); (L.K.); (O.A.); (A.M.); (S.M.); (L.C.)
- Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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11
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Vizovisek M, Ristanovic D, Menghini S, Christiansen MG, Schuerle S. The Tumor Proteolytic Landscape: A Challenging Frontier in Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22052514. [PMID: 33802262 PMCID: PMC7958950 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22052514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent decades, dysregulation of proteases and atypical proteolysis have become increasingly recognized as important hallmarks of cancer, driving community-wide efforts to explore the proteolytic landscape of oncologic disease. With more than 100 proteases currently associated with different aspects of cancer development and progression, there is a clear impetus to harness their potential in the context of oncology. Advances in the protease field have yielded technologies enabling sensitive protease detection in various settings, paving the way towards diagnostic profiling of disease-related protease activity patterns. Methods including activity-based probes and substrates, antibodies, and various nanosystems that generate reporter signals, i.e., for PET or MRI, after interaction with the target protease have shown potential for clinical translation. Nevertheless, these technologies are costly, not easily multiplexed, and require advanced imaging technologies. While the current clinical applications of protease-responsive technologies in oncologic settings are still limited, emerging technologies and protease sensors are poised to enable comprehensive exploration of the tumor proteolytic landscape as a diagnostic and therapeutic frontier. This review aims to give an overview of the most relevant classes of proteases as indicators for tumor diagnosis, current approaches to detect and monitor their activity in vivo, and associated therapeutic applications.
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12
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Tušar L, Usenik A, Turk B, Turk D. Mechanisms Applied by Protein Inhibitors to Inhibit Cysteine Proteases. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22030997. [PMID: 33498210 PMCID: PMC7863939 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22030997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein inhibitors of proteases are an important tool of nature to regulate and control proteolysis in living organisms under physiological and pathological conditions. In this review, we analyzed the mechanisms of inhibition of cysteine proteases on the basis of structural information and compiled kinetic data. The gathered structural data indicate that the protein fold is not a major obstacle for the evolution of a protease inhibitor. It appears that nature can convert almost any starting fold into an inhibitor of a protease. In addition, there appears to be no general rule governing the inhibitory mechanism. The structural data make it clear that the “lock and key” mechanism is a historical concept with limited validity. However, the analysis suggests that the shape of the active site cleft of proteases imposes some restraints. When the S1 binding site is shaped as a pocket buried in the structure of protease, inhibitors can apply substrate-like binding mechanisms. In contrast, when the S1 binding site is in part exposed to solvent, the substrate-like inhibition cannot be employed. It appears that all proteases, with the exception of papain-like proteases, belong to the first group of proteases. Finally, we show a number of examples and provide hints on how to engineer protein inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Livija Tušar
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Jamova cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (L.T.); (A.U.); (B.T.)
- Centre of Excellence for Integrated Approaches in Chemistry and Biology of Proteins (CIPKeBiP), Jamova cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Aleksandra Usenik
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Jamova cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (L.T.); (A.U.); (B.T.)
- Centre of Excellence for Integrated Approaches in Chemistry and Biology of Proteins (CIPKeBiP), Jamova cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Boris Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Jamova cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (L.T.); (A.U.); (B.T.)
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 113, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Institute of Regenerative Medicine, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Bol’shaya Pirogovskaya Ulitsa, 19c1, 119146 Moscow, Russia
| | - Dušan Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Jamova cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (L.T.); (A.U.); (B.T.)
- Centre of Excellence for Integrated Approaches in Chemistry and Biology of Proteins (CIPKeBiP), Jamova cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +386-1477-3857
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13
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Ulčakar L, Novinec M. Inhibition of Human Cathepsins B and L by Caffeic Acid and Its Derivatives. Biomolecules 2020; 11:E31. [PMID: 33383850 PMCID: PMC7824550 DOI: 10.3390/biom11010031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Caffeic acid (CA) and its derivatives caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) and chlorogenic acid (CGA) are phenolic compounds of plant origin with a wide range of biological activities. Here, we identify and characterize their inhibitory properties against human cathepsins B and L, potent, ubiquitously expressed cysteine peptidases involved in protein turnover and homeostasis, as well as pathological conditions, such as cancer. We show that CAPE and CGA inhibit both peptidases, while CA shows a preference for cathepsin B, resulting in the strongest inhibition among these combinations. All compounds are linear (complete) inhibitors acting via mixed or catalytic mechanisms. Cathepsin B is more strongly inhibited at pH 7.4 than at 5.5, and CA inhibits its endopeptidase activity preferentially over its peptidyl-dipeptidase activity. Altogether, the results identify the CA scaffold as a promising candidate for the development of cathepsin B inhibitors, specifically targeting its endopeptidase activity associated with pathological proteolysis of extracellular substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marko Novinec
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 113, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
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Procathepsin V Is Secreted in a TSH Regulated Manner from Human Thyroid Epithelial Cells and Is Accessible to an Activity-Based Probe. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21239140. [PMID: 33266306 PMCID: PMC7731157 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21239140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The significance of cysteine cathepsins for the liberation of thyroid hormones from the precursor thyroglobulin was previously shown by in vivo and in vitro studies. Cathepsin L is most important for thyroglobulin processing in mice. The present study aims at specifying the possible contribution of its closest relative, cysteine cathepsin L2/V, to thyroid function. Immunofluorescence analysis on normal human thyroid tissue revealed its predominant localization at the apical plasma membrane of thyrocytes and within the follicle lumen, indicating the secretion of cathepsin V and extracellular tasks rather than its acting within endo-lysosomes. To explore the trafficking pathways of cathepsin V in more detail, a chimeric protein consisting of human cathepsin V tagged with green fluorescent protein (GFP) was stably expressed in the Nthy-ori 3-1 thyroid epithelial cell line. Colocalization studies with compartment-specific markers and analyses of post-translational modifications revealed that the chimeric protein was sorted into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum and subsequently transported to the Golgi apparatus, while being N-glycosylated. Immunoblotting showed that the chimeric protein reached endo-lysosomes and it became secreted from the transduced cells. Astonishingly, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)-induced secretion of GFP-tagged cathepsin V occurred as the proform, suggesting that TSH upregulates its transport to the plasma membrane before it reaches endo-lysosomes for maturation. The proform of cathepsin V was found to be reactive with the activity-based probe DCG-04, suggesting that it possesses catalytic activity. We propose that TSH-stimulated secretion of procathepsin V is the default pathway in the thyroid to enable its contribution to thyroglobulin processing by extracellular means.
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15
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Suurs FV, Qiu SQ, Yim JJ, Schröder CP, Timmer-Bosscha H, Bensen ES, Santini JT, de Vries EGE, Bogyo M, van Dam GM. Fluorescent image-guided surgery in breast cancer by intravenous application of a quenched fluorescence activity-based probe for cysteine cathepsins in a syngeneic mouse model. EJNMMI Res 2020; 10:111. [PMID: 32990883 PMCID: PMC7524956 DOI: 10.1186/s13550-020-00688-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The reoperation rate for breast-conserving surgery is as high as 15–30% due to residual tumor in the surgical cavity after surgery. In vivo tumor-targeted optical molecular imaging may serve as a red-flag technique to improve intraoperative surgical margin assessment and to reduce reoperation rates. Cysteine cathepsins are overexpressed in most solid tumor types, including breast cancer. We developed a cathepsin-targeted, quenched fluorescent activity-based probe, VGT-309, and evaluated whether it could be used for tumor detection and image-guided surgery in syngeneic tumor-bearing mice. Methods Binding specificity of the developed probe was evaluated in vitro. Next, fluorescent imaging in BALB/c mice bearing a murine breast tumor was performed at different time points after VGT-309 administration. Biodistribution of VGT-309 after 24 h in tumor-bearing mice was compared to control mice. Image-guided surgery was performed at multiple time points tumors with different clinical fluorescent camera systems and followed by ex vivo analysis. Results The probe was specifically activated by cathepsins X, B/L, and S. Fluorescent imaging revealed an increased tumor-to-background contrast over time up to 15.1 24 h post probe injection. In addition, VGT-309 delineated tumor tissue during image-guided surgery with different optical fluorescent imaging camera systems. Conclusion These results indicate that optical fluorescent molecular imaging using the cathepsin-targeted probe, VGT-309, may improve intraoperative tumor detection, which could translate to more complete tumor resection when coupled with commercially available surgical tools and techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frans V Suurs
- Department of Medical Oncology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Si-Qi Qiu
- Department of Medical Oncology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands. .,Diagnosis and Treatment Center of Breast Diseases, Affiliated Shantou Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shantou, China.
| | - Joshua J Yim
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Carolien P Schröder
- Department of Medical Oncology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Hetty Timmer-Bosscha
- Department of Medical Oncology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Elisabeth G E de Vries
- Department of Medical Oncology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Matthew Bogyo
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.,Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Gooitzen M van Dam
- Department of Surgery, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands. .,Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging and Medical Imaging Center, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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16
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Tholen M, Yim JJ, Groborz K, Yoo E, Martin BA, Berg NS, Drag M, Bogyo M. Design of Optical‐Imaging Probes by Screening of Diverse Substrate Libraries Directly in Disease‐Tissue Extracts. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202006719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martina Tholen
- Department of Pathology Stanford University School of Medicine 300 Pasteur Drive Stanford CA 94305 USA
| | - Joshua J. Yim
- Department of Pathology Stanford University School of Medicine 300 Pasteur Drive Stanford CA 94305 USA
- Department of Chemical and System Biology Stanford University School of Medicine 300 Pasteur Drive Stanford CA 94305 USA
| | - Katarzyna Groborz
- Department of Chemical Biology and Bioimaging Faculty of Chemistry Wrocław University of Science and Technology Wrocław Poland
| | - Euna Yoo
- Department of Pathology Stanford University School of Medicine 300 Pasteur Drive Stanford CA 94305 USA
- Current address: Chemical Biology Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research National Cancer Institute Frederick MD 20850 USA
| | - Brock A. Martin
- Department of Pathology Stanford University School of Medicine 300 Pasteur Drive Stanford CA 94305 USA
| | - Nynke S. Berg
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery Stanford University School of Medicine 900 Blake Wilbur Drive Stanford CA 94305 USA
| | - Marcin Drag
- Department of Chemical Biology and Bioimaging Faculty of Chemistry Wrocław University of Science and Technology Wrocław Poland
| | - Matthew Bogyo
- Department of Pathology Stanford University School of Medicine 300 Pasteur Drive Stanford CA 94305 USA
- Department of Chemical and System Biology Stanford University School of Medicine 300 Pasteur Drive Stanford CA 94305 USA
- Microbiology and Immunology Stanford University School of Medicine 300 Pasteur Drive Stanford CA 94305 USA
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Tholen M, Yim JJ, Groborz K, Yoo E, Martin BA, van den Berg NS, Drag M, Bogyo M. Design of Optical-Imaging Probes by Screening of Diverse Substrate Libraries Directly in Disease-Tissue Extracts. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:19143-19152. [PMID: 32589815 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202006719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Fluorescently quenched probes that are specifically activated in the cancer microenvironment have great potential application for diagnosis, early detection, and surgical guidance. These probes are often designed to target specific enzymes associated with diseases by direct optimization using single purified enzymes. However, this can result in painstaking chemistry efforts to produce a probe with suboptimal performance when applied in vivo. We describe here an alternate, unbiased activity-profiling approach in which whole tissue extracts are used to directly identify optimal peptide sequences for probe design. Screening of tumor extracts with a hybrid combinatorial substrate library (HyCoSuL) identified a combination of natural and non-natural amino-acid residues that was used to generate highly efficient tumor-specific probes. This new strategy simplifies and enhances the process of probe optimization without any a priori knowledge of enzyme targets and has the potential to be applied to diverse disease states using clinical or animal-model tissue samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Tholen
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Joshua J Yim
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.,Department of Chemical and System Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Katarzyna Groborz
- Department of Chemical Biology and Bioimaging, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Euna Yoo
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.,Current address: Chemical Biology Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Brock A Martin
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Nynke S van den Berg
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, 900 Blake Wilbur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Marcin Drag
- Department of Chemical Biology and Bioimaging, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Matthew Bogyo
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.,Department of Chemical and System Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.,Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
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18
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Vizovišek M, Vidak E, Javoršek U, Mikhaylov G, Bratovš A, Turk B. Cysteine cathepsins as therapeutic targets in inflammatory diseases. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2020; 24:573-588. [PMID: 32228244 DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2020.1746765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Cysteine cathepsins are involved in the development and progression of numerous inflammation-associated diseases such as cancer, arthritis, bone and immune disorders. Consequently, there is a drive to progress research efforts focused on cathepsin use in diagnostics and as therapeutic targets in disease.Areas covered: This review discusses the potential of cysteine cathepsins as therapeutic targets in inflammation-associated diseases and recent advances in preclinical and clinical research. We describe direct targeting of cathepsins for treatment purposes and their indirect use in diagnostics.Expert opinion: The targeting of cysteine cathepsins has not translated into the clinic; this failure is attributed to off- and on-target side effects and/or the lack of companion biomarkers. This field now embraces developments in diagnostic imaging, the activation of prodrugs and antibody-drug conjugates for targeted drug delivery. The future lies in improved molecular tools and therapeutic concepts that will find a wide spectrum of uses in diagnostic and therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matej Vizovišek
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Department of Biology, Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Eva Vidak
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Jozef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Urban Javoršek
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Jozef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Georgy Mikhaylov
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Andreja Bratovš
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Jozef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Boris Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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19
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Hölzen L, Parigiani MA, Reinheckel T. Tumor cell- and microenvironment-specific roles of cysteine cathepsins in mouse models of human cancers. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2020; 1868:140423. [PMID: 32247787 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2020.140423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The human genome encodes for 11 papain-like endolysosomal cysteine peptidases, collectively known as the cysteine cathepsins. Based on their biochemical properties and with the help of experiments in cell culture, the cysteine cathepsins have acquired a reputation as promotors of progression and metastasis of various cancer entities. However, tumors are known to be complex tissues in which non-cancerous cells are also critical for tumorigenesis. Here we discuss the results of the intense investigation of cathepsins in mouse models of human cancers. We focus on models in immunocompetent mice, because only such models allow for analysis of cathepsins in a fully functional tumor microenvironment. An important outcome of those studies was the identification of cancer-promoting cathepsins in tumor-associated macrophages. Another interesting outcome of these animal studies was the identification of a homeostatic tumor-suppressive role for cathepsin L in skin and intestinal cancers. Taken together, these in vivo findings provide a basis for the use of cysteine cathepsins as therapeutic targets, prodrug activators, or as proteases for imaging tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena Hölzen
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Maria Alejandra Parigiani
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Reinheckel
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site, Freiburg, Germany; BIOSS Centre for Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
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20
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McCord JP, Grove TZ. Engineering repeat proteins of the immune system. Biopolymers 2020; 111:e23348. [PMID: 32031681 DOI: 10.1002/bip.23348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Revised: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Limitations associated with immunoglobulins have motivated the search for novel binding scaffolds. Repeat proteins have emerged as one promising class of scaffolds, but often are limited to binding protein and peptide targets. An exception is the repeat proteins of the immune system, which have in recent years served as an inspiration for binding scaffolds which can bind glycans and other classes of biomolecule. Like other repeat proteins, these proteins can be very stable and have a monomeric mode of binding, with elongated and highly variable binding surfaces. The ability to target glycans and glycoproteins fill an important gap in current tools for research and biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer P McCord
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, U.S.A
| | - Tijana Z Grove
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, U.S.A.,Zarkovic Grove Consulting, LLC, Blacksburg, VA, U.S.A
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21
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Mittl PR, Ernst P, Plückthun A. Chaperone-assisted structure elucidation with DARPins. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2020; 60:93-100. [PMID: 31918361 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2019.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Revised: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Designed ankyrin repeat proteins (DARPins) are artificial binding proteins that have found many uses in therapy, diagnostics and biochemical research. They substantially extend the scope of antibody-derived binders. Their high affinity and specificity, rigidity, extended paratope, and facile bacterial production make them attractive for structural biology. Complexes with simple DARPins have been crystallized for a long time, but particularly the rigid helix fusion strategy has opened new opportunities. Rigid DARPin fusions expand crystallization space, enable recruitment of targets in a host lattice and reduce the size limit for cryo-EM. Besides applications in structural biology, rigid DARPin fusions also serve as molecular probes in cells to investigate spatial restraints in targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peer Re Mittl
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Patrick Ernst
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Plückthun
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland.
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22
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Petushkova AI, Savvateeva LV, Korolev DO, Zamyatnin AA. Cysteine Cathepsins: Potential Applications in Diagnostics and Therapy of Malignant Tumors. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2019; 84:746-761. [PMID: 31509726 DOI: 10.1134/s000629791907006x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Cysteine cathepsins are proteolytic enzymes involved in protein degradation in lysosomes and endosomes. Cysteine cathepsins have been also found in the tumor microenvironment during carcinogenesis, where they are implicated in proliferation, invasion and metastasis of tumor cells through the degradation of extracellular matrix, suppression of cell-cell interactions, and promotion of angiogenesis. In this regard, cathepsins can have a diagnostic value and represent promising targets for antitumor drugs aimed at inhibition of these proteases. Moreover, cysteine cathepsins can be used as activators of novel targeted therapeutic agents. This review summarizes recent discovered roles of cysteine cathepsins in carcinogenesis and discusses new trends in cancer therapy and diagnostics using cysteine cathepsins as markers, targets, or activators.
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Affiliation(s)
- A I Petushkova
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - L V Savvateeva
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - D O Korolev
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Institute of Uronephrology and Human Reproductive Health, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - A A Zamyatnin
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Moscow, 119991, Russia. .,Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119992, Russia
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Singh N, Kumar P, Riaz U. Applications of near infrared and surface enhanced Raman scattering techniques in tumor imaging: A short review. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2019; 222:117279. [PMID: 31234091 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2019.117279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Revised: 06/08/2019] [Accepted: 06/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Imaging technologies play a vital role in clinical oncology and have undergone massive growth over the past few decades. Research in the field of tumor imaging and biomedical diagnostics requires early detection of physiological alterations so as to provide curative treatment in real time. The objective of this review is to provide an insight about near infrared fluorescence (NIRF) and surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) imaging techniques that can be used to expand their capabilities for the early detection and diagnosis of cancer cells. Basic setup, principle and working of the instruments has been provided and common NIRF imaging agents as well as SERS tags are also discussed besides the analytical advantages/disadvantages of these techniques. This review can help researchers working in the field of molecular imaging to design cost effective fluorophores and SERS tags to overcome the limitations of both NIRF as well as SERS imaging technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neetika Singh
- Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 110025, India; Advanced Instrumentation Research Facility, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Prabhat Kumar
- Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 110025, India; Advanced Instrumentation Research Facility, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Ufana Riaz
- Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 110025, India; Advanced Instrumentation Research Facility, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India.
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Bragina OD, Chernov VI, Zeltchan RV, Sinilkin IG, Medvedeva AA, Larkina MS. Alternative scaffolds in radionuclide diagnosis of malignancies. BULLETIN OF SIBERIAN MEDICINE 2019. [DOI: 10.20538/1682-0363-2019-3-125-133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
This review discusses a relatively new class of targeted molecules that is being actively studied for radionuclide diagnosis and treatment of malignancies. The full-size antibodies used so far have non-optimal pharmacological properties, slow distribution in the body, poor penetration into the tissue and kidney excretion, and high immunogenicity, which significantly complicates their use in clinical practice. Over the past decade, a new class of targeted molecules, called “non-immunoglobulin scaffolds” have become popular; they have all the requirements for optimal delivery of a radionuclide to tumor cells. Scaffolds usually are smaller in size in comparison with antibodies, but they are larger than peptides, and are characterized by high affinity and optimal biochemical, biophysical, biological, and economic features. The advantages of such proteins are their stable structure, good penetration into tissues, the possibility of additional functionalization and expression in the bacterial system, which ensures low production costs.The results of preclinical and clinical studies for diagnosis of malignancies using such proteins as affibody, adnectin, DARPins, etc., have demonstrated their high specificity, affinity, good tolerance and low immunogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- O. D. Bragina
- Cancer Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center (NRMC), Russian Academy of Science
| | - V. I. Chernov
- Cancer Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center (NRMC), Russian Academy of Science;
National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University
| | - R. V. Zeltchan
- Cancer Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center (NRMC), Russian Academy of Science
| | - I. G. Sinilkin
- Cancer Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center (NRMC), Russian Academy of Science
| | - A. A. Medvedeva
- Cancer Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center (NRMC), Russian Academy of Science
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Shilovskiy IP, Dyneva ME, Kurbacheva OM, Kudlay DA, Khaitov MR. The Role of Interleukin-37 in the Pathogenesis of Allergic Diseases. Acta Naturae 2019; 11:54-64. [PMID: 31993235 PMCID: PMC6977961 DOI: 10.32607/20758251-2019-11-4-54-64] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytokines of the interleukin-1 (IL-1) family play an important role in the realization of the protective functions of innate immunity and are the key mediators involved in the pathogenesis of a wide range of diseases, including various manifestations of allergy. The IL-1 family includes more than 11 members. However, the functions of many of them remain to be elucidated. Recently, new members of the IL-1 family have been discovered. In 2000, several independent research groups reported the discovery of a new interleukin of this family, which was named IL-37, or IL-1F7 (according to the new nomenclature). IL-37 was assigned to the IL-1 family based on its structural similarity with other members of this family. The study of its biological properties showed that its activity changes in inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, as well as allergic diseases (allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma, and atopic dermatitis). However, unlike most members of the IL-1 family, IL-37 acts as a negative regulator of inflammation. Activation of IL-37 suppresses inflammation, resulting in the suppression of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which in turn prevents infiltration of pro-inflammatory cells, mainly eosinophils and neutrophils. The exact molecular and cellular mechanisms of the anti-inflammatory effect of IL-37 in the development of allergic diseases (AD) have not been fully studied. This review summarizes and analyzes the accumulated experimental data on the role of IL-37 in the pathogenesis of AD, such as allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma, and atopic dermatitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- I. P. Shilovskiy
- National Research Center – Institute of Immunology Federal Medical-Biological Agency of Russia, Moscow, 115522 Russia
| | - M. E. Dyneva
- National Research Center – Institute of Immunology Federal Medical-Biological Agency of Russia, Moscow, 115522 Russia
| | - O. M. Kurbacheva
- National Research Center – Institute of Immunology Federal Medical-Biological Agency of Russia, Moscow, 115522 Russia
| | - D. A. Kudlay
- National Research Center – Institute of Immunology Federal Medical-Biological Agency of Russia, Moscow, 115522 Russia
| | - M. R. Khaitov
- National Research Center – Institute of Immunology Federal Medical-Biological Agency of Russia, Moscow, 115522 Russia
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Shilova ON, Deyev SM. DARPins: Promising Scaffolds for Theranostics. Acta Naturae 2019; 11:42-53. [PMID: 31993234 PMCID: PMC6977956 DOI: 10.32607/20758251-2019-11-4-42-53] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies are the classical basis for targeted therapy, but the development of alternative binding proteins has made it possible to use non-immunoglobulin proteins as targeting modules. The advantages of DARPins, scaffold proteins based on ankyrin repeats, over antibodies are as follows: small size, stability over a wide range of temperatures and pH values, low aggregation tendency, and ease of production in heterologous expression systems. The differences in the structure of the paratope of DARPin and antibodies broaden the spectrum of target molecules, while the ease of creating hybrid fusion proteins allows one to obtain bispecific and multivalent constructs. In this article, we summarize recent data on the development of therapeutic and imaging compounds based on DARPins.
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Affiliation(s)
- O. N. Shilova
- Shemyakin–Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow
| | - S. M. Deyev
- Shemyakin–Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow
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27
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Poreba M, Groborz K, Vizovisek M, Maruggi M, Turk D, Turk B, Powis G, Drag M, Salvesen GS. Fluorescent probes towards selective cathepsin B detection and visualization in cancer cells and patient samples. Chem Sci 2019; 10:8461-8477. [PMID: 31803426 PMCID: PMC6839509 DOI: 10.1039/c9sc00997c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Highly selective fluorescent activity-based probe for the visualization of cathepsin B in cancer cells.
Human cysteine cathepsins constitute an 11-membered family of proteases responsible for degradation of proteins in cellular endosomal–lysosomal compartments as such, they play important roles in antigen processing, cellular stress signaling, autophagy, and senescence. Moreover, for many years these enzymes were also linked to tumor growth, invasion, angiogenesis and metastasis when upregulated. Individual biological roles of each cathepsin are difficult to establish, because of their redundancy and similar substrate specificities. Selective chemical tools that enable imaging of individual cathepsin activities in living cells, tumors, and the tumor microenvironment may provide a better insight into their functions. In this work, we used HyCoSuL technology to profile the substrate specificity of human cathepsin B. The use of unnatural amino acids in the substrate library enabled us to uncover the broad cathepsin B preferences that we utilized to design highly-selective substrates and fluorescent activity-based probes (ABPs). We further demonstrated that Cy5-labeled MP-CB-2 probe can selectively label cathepsin B in eighteen cancer cell lines tested, making this ABP highly suitable for other biological setups. Moreover, using Cy5-labelled MP-CB-2 we were able to demonstrate by fluorescence microscopy that in cancer cells cathepsins B and L share overlapping, but not identical subcellular localization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Poreba
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute , 10901 North Torrey Pines Road , La Jolla , CA 92037 , USA . ; ; .,Department of Bioorganic Chemistry , Faculty of Chemistry , Wroclaw University of Technology , Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27 , 50-370 Wroclaw , Poland
| | - Katarzyna Groborz
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry , Faculty of Chemistry , Wroclaw University of Technology , Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27 , 50-370 Wroclaw , Poland
| | - Matej Vizovisek
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology , Jožef Stefan Institute , SI-1000 Ljubljana , Slovenia
| | - Marco Maruggi
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute , 10901 North Torrey Pines Road , La Jolla , CA 92037 , USA . ; ;
| | - Dusan Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology , Jožef Stefan Institute , SI-1000 Ljubljana , Slovenia
| | - Boris Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology , Jožef Stefan Institute , SI-1000 Ljubljana , Slovenia.,Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology , University of Ljubljana , SI-1000 Ljubljana , Slovenia
| | - Garth Powis
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute , 10901 North Torrey Pines Road , La Jolla , CA 92037 , USA . ; ;
| | - Marcin Drag
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute , 10901 North Torrey Pines Road , La Jolla , CA 92037 , USA . ; ; .,Department of Bioorganic Chemistry , Faculty of Chemistry , Wroclaw University of Technology , Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27 , 50-370 Wroclaw , Poland
| | - Guy S Salvesen
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute , 10901 North Torrey Pines Road , La Jolla , CA 92037 , USA . ; ;
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Vasiljeva O, Hostetter DR, Moore SJ, Winter MB. The multifaceted roles of tumor-associated proteases and harnessing their activity for prodrug activation. Biol Chem 2019; 400:965-977. [PMID: 30913028 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2018-0451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2018] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The role of proteases in cancer was originally thought to be limited to the breakdown of basement membranes and extracellular matrix (ECM), thereby promoting cancer cell invasion into surrounding normal tissues. It is now well understood that proteases play a much more complicated role in all stages of cancer progression and that not only tumor cells, but also stromal cells are an important source of proteases in the tumor microenvironment. Among all the proteolytic enzymes potentially associated with cancer, some proteases have taken on heightened importance due to their significant up-regulation and ability to participate at multiple stages of cancer progression and metastasis. In this review, we discuss some of the advances in understanding of the roles of several key proteases from different classes in the development and progression of cancer and the potential to leverage their upregulated activity for the development of novel targeted treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Vasiljeva
- CytomX Therapeutics Inc., Platform Biology, 151 Oyster Point Blvd, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Daniel R Hostetter
- CytomX Therapeutics Inc., Platform Biology, 151 Oyster Point Blvd, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Stephen J Moore
- CytomX Therapeutics Inc., Platform Biology, 151 Oyster Point Blvd, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Michael B Winter
- CytomX Therapeutics Inc., Platform Biology, 151 Oyster Point Blvd, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
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29
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Soond SM, Kozhevnikova MV, Townsend PA, Zamyatnin AA. Cysteine Cathepsin Protease Inhibition: An update on its Diagnostic, Prognostic and Therapeutic Potential in Cancer. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2019; 12:ph12020087. [PMID: 31212661 PMCID: PMC6630828 DOI: 10.3390/ph12020087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In keeping with recent developments in basic research; the importance of the Cathepsins as targets in cancer therapy have taken on increasing importance and given rise to a number of key areas of interest in the clinical setting. In keeping with driving basic research in this area in a translational direction; recent findings have given rise to a number of exciting developments in the areas of cancer diagnosis; prognosis and therapeutic development. As a fast-moving area of research; the focus of this review brings together the latest findings and highlights the translational significance of these developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surinder M Soond
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Trubetskaya str. 8-2, 119991 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Maria V Kozhevnikova
- Federal State Autonomous Edu-cational Institution of Higher Education I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Russian Federation (Sechenovskiy University), Hospital Therapy Department No. 1, 6-1 Bolshaya Pirogovskaya str, 119991 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Paul A Townsend
- Division of Cancer Sciences and Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, and the NIHR Manchester Biomedical Research Centre, Manchester M20 4GJ, UK.
| | - Andrey A Zamyatnin
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Trubetskaya str. 8-2, 119991 Moscow, Russia.
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia.
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Bratovš A, Kramer L, Mikhaylov G, Vasiljeva O, Turk B. Stefin A-functionalized liposomes as a system for cathepsins S and L-targeted drug delivery. Biochimie 2019; 166:94-102. [PMID: 31163196 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2019.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2019] [Accepted: 05/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Proteolytic activity in the tumor microenvironment is one of the key elements supporting tumor development and metastasis. One of the key families of proteases that are overexpressed in various types of cancer and implicated in different stages of tumor progression are cysteine cathepsins. Among them, cathepsins S and L can be secreted into the tumor microenvironment by tumor and/or immune cells, making them promising drug delivery targets. Here we present a new system for cathepsin S/L targeting using a liposomal drug carrier system functionalized with the endogenous cysteine cathepsin inhibitor, stefin A. The selective targeting of cathepsins by stefin A-conjugated liposomes was confirmed in vitro and in vivo, demonstrating the potential of this approach for cancer diagnosis and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreja Bratovš
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Jozef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jamova 39, Sl-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Lovro Kramer
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Georgy Mikhaylov
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Olga Vasiljeva
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Boris Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Večna Pot 113, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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31
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Schwenck J, Maurer A, Fehrenbacher B, Mehling R, Knopf P, Mucha N, Haupt D, Fuchs K, Griessinger CM, Bukala D, Holstein J, Schaller M, Menendez IG, Ghoreschi K, Quintanilla-Martinez L, Gütschow M, Laufer S, Reinheckel T, Röcken M, Kalbacher H, Pichler BJ, Kneilling M. Cysteine-type cathepsins promote the effector phase of acute cutaneous delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions. Theranostics 2019; 9:3903-3917. [PMID: 31281521 PMCID: PMC6587341 DOI: 10.7150/thno.31037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Cysteine-type cathepsins such as cathepsin B are involved in various steps of inflammatory processes such as antigen processing and angiogenesis. Here, we uncovered the role of cysteine-type cathepsins in the effector phase of T cell-driven cutaneous delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions (DTHR) and the implication of this role on therapeutic cathepsin B-specific inhibition. Methods: Wild-type, cathepsin B-deficient (Ctsb-/-) and cathepsin Z-deficient (Ctsz-/-) mice were sensitized with 2,4,6-trinitrochlorobenzene (TNCB) on the abdomen and challenged with TNCB on the right ear to induce acute and chronic cutaneous DTHR. The severity of cutaneous DTHR was assessed by evaluating ear swelling responses and histopathology. We performed fluorescence microscopy on tissue from inflamed ears and lymph nodes of wild-type mice, as well as on biopsies from psoriasis patients, focusing on cathepsin B expression by T cells, B cells, macrophages, dendritic cells and NK cells. Cathepsin activity was determined noninvasively by optical imaging employing protease-activated substrate-like probes. Cathepsin expression and activity were validated ex vivo by covalent active site labeling of proteases and Western blotting. Results: Noninvasive in vivo optical imaging revealed strong cysteine-type cathepsin activity in inflamed ears and draining lymph nodes in acute and chronic cutaneous DTHR. In inflamed ears and draining lymph nodes, cathepsin B was expressed by neutrophils, dendritic cells, macrophages, B, T and natural killer (NK) cells. Similar expression patterns were found in psoriatic plaques of patients. The biochemical methods confirmed active cathepsin B in tissues of mice with cutaneous DTHR. Topically applied cathepsin B inhibitors significantly reduced ear swelling in acute but not chronic DTHR. Compared with wild-type mice, Ctsb-/- mice exhibited an enhanced ear swelling response during acute DTHR despite a lack of cathepsin B expression. Cathepsin Z, a protease closely related to cathepsin B, revealed compensatory expression in inflamed ears of Ctsb-/- mice, while cathepsin B expression was reciprocally elevated in Ctsz-/- mice. Conclusion: Cathepsin B is actively involved in the effector phase of acute cutaneous DTHR. Thus, topically applied cathepsin B inhibitors might effectively limit DTHR such as contact dermatitis or psoriasis. However, the cathepsin B and Z knockout mouse experiments suggested a complementary role for these two cysteine-type proteases.
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Vidak E, Javoršek U, Vizovišek M, Turk B. Cysteine Cathepsins and their Extracellular Roles: Shaping the Microenvironment. Cells 2019; 8:cells8030264. [PMID: 30897858 PMCID: PMC6468544 DOI: 10.3390/cells8030264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 222] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
For a long time, cysteine cathepsins were considered primarily as proteases crucial for nonspecific bulk proteolysis in the endolysosomal system. However, this view has dramatically changed, and cathepsins are now considered key players in many important physiological processes, including in diseases like cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, and various inflammatory diseases. Cathepsins are emerging as important players in the extracellular space, and the paradigm is shifting from the degrading enzymes to the enzymes that can also specifically modify extracellular proteins. In pathological conditions, the activity of cathepsins is often dysregulated, resulting in their overexpression and secretion into the extracellular space. This is typically observed in cancer and inflammation, and cathepsins are therefore considered valuable diagnostic and therapeutic targets. In particular, the investigation of limited proteolysis by cathepsins in the extracellular space is opening numerous possibilities for future break-through discoveries. In this review, we highlight the most important findings that establish cysteine cathepsins as important players in the extracellular space and discuss their roles that reach beyond processing and degradation of extracellular matrix (ECM) components. In addition, we discuss the recent developments in cathepsin research and the new possibilities that are opening in translational medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Vidak
- Jozef Stefan Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
- International Postgraduate School Jozef Stefan, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Urban Javoršek
- Jozef Stefan Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
- International Postgraduate School Jozef Stefan, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Matej Vizovišek
- Jozef Stefan Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
- Department of Biology, Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zürich Otto-Stern-Weg 3, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Boris Turk
- Jozef Stefan Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Vecna pot 113, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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Cathepsin B: A sellsword of cancer progression. Cancer Lett 2019; 449:207-214. [PMID: 30796968 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2019.02.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Revised: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Clinical, biochemical and molecular biology studies have identified lysosome-encapsulated cellular proteases as critical risk factors for cancer progression. Cathepsins represent a group of such proteases aimed at maintenance of cellular homeostasis. Nevertheless, recent reports suggest that Cathepsin B executes other cellular programs such as controlling tumor growth, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, and metastases development. In fact, elevated levels of Cathepsins are found under different pathological conditions including inflammation, infection, neurodegenerative disease, and cancer. Furthermore, the discovery of Cathepsin B secretion and function as an extracellular matrix protein has broadened our appreciation for the impact of Cathepsin B on cancer progression. Underneath a façade of an intracellular protease with limited therapeutic potential hides a central role of cathepsins in extracellular functions. Moreover, this role is incredibly diverse from one condition to the next - from driving caspase-dependent apoptosis to facilitating tumor neovascularization and metastasis. Here we discuss the role of Cathepsin B in the oncogenic process and perspective the use of Cathepsin B for diagnostic and therapeutic applications.
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34
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Yap ML, McFadyen JD, Wang X, Ziegler M, Chen YC, Willcox A, Nowell CJ, Scott AM, Sloan EK, Hogarth PM, Pietersz GA, Peter K. Activated platelets in the tumor microenvironment for targeting of antibody-drug conjugates to tumors and metastases. Am J Cancer Res 2019; 9:1154-1169. [PMID: 30867822 PMCID: PMC6401411 DOI: 10.7150/thno.29146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 01/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Rationale: Platelets are increasingly recognized as mediators of tumor growth and metastasis. Hypothesizing that activated platelets in the tumor microenvironment provide a targeting epitope for tumor-directed chemotherapy, we developed an antibody-drug conjugate (ADC), comprised of a single-chain antibody (scFv) against the platelet integrin GPIIb/IIIa (scFvGPIIb/IIIa) linked to the potent chemotherapeutic microtubule inhibitor, monomethyl auristatin E (MMAE). Methods: We developed an ADC comprised of three components: 1) A scFv which specifically binds to the high affinity, activated integrin GPIIb/IIIa on activated platelets. 2) A highly potent microtubule inhibitor, monomethyl auristatin E. 3) A drug activation/release mechanism using a linker cleavable by cathepsin B, which we demonstrate to be abundant in the tumor microenvironment. The scFvGPIIb/IIIa-MMAE was first conjugated with Cyanine7 for in vivo imaging. The therapeutic efficacy of the scFvGPIIb/IIIa-MMAE was then tested in a mouse metastasis model of triple negative breast cancer. Results: In vitro studies confirmed that this ADC specifically binds to activated GPIIb/IIIa, and cathepsin B-mediated drug release/activation resulted in tumor cytotoxicity. In vivo fluorescence imaging demonstrated that the newly generated ADC localized to primary tumors and metastases in a mouse xenograft model of triple negative breast cancer, a difficult to treat tumor for which a selective tumor-targeting therapy remains to be clinically established. Importantly, we demonstrated that the scFvGPIIb/IIIa-MMAE displays marked efficacy as an anti-cancer agent, reducing tumor growth and preventing metastatic disease, without any discernible toxic effects. Conclusion: Here, we demonstrate the utility of a novel ADC that targets a potent cytotoxic drug to activated platelets and specifically releases the cytotoxic agent within the confines of the tumor. This unique targeting mechanism, specific to the tumor microenvironment, holds promise as a novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of a broad range of primary tumors and metastatic disease, particularly for tumors that lack specific molecular epitopes for drug targeting.
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Vizovišek M, Fonović M, Turk B. Cysteine cathepsins in extracellular matrix remodeling: Extracellular matrix degradation and beyond. Matrix Biol 2019; 75-76:141-159. [DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2018.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Revised: 01/14/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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36
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Cornelissen B, Knight JC, Mukherjee S, Evangelista L, Xavier C, Caobelli F, Del Vecchio S, Rbah-Vidal L, Barbet J, de Jong M, van Leeuwen FWB. Translational molecular imaging in exocrine pancreatic cancer. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2018; 45:2442-2455. [PMID: 30225616 PMCID: PMC6208802 DOI: 10.1007/s00259-018-4146-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Effective treatment for pancreatic cancer remains challenging, particularly the treatment of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), which makes up more than 95% of all pancreatic cancers. Late diagnosis and failure of chemotherapy and radiotherapy are all too common, and many patients die soon after diagnosis. Here, we make the case for the increased use of molecular imaging in PDAC preclinical research and in patient management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bart Cornelissen
- CRUK/MRC Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, Department of Oncology, Oxford University, Oxford, UK.
| | - James C Knight
- CRUK/MRC Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, Department of Oncology, Oxford University, Oxford, UK
| | - Somnath Mukherjee
- CRUK/MRC Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, Department of Oncology, Oxford University, Oxford, UK
| | | | | | - Federico Caobelli
- Department of Radiology, Universitätsspital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Latifa Rbah-Vidal
- CRCINA, INSERM, CNRS, Université d'Angers, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Jacques Barbet
- CRCINA, INSERM, CNRS, Université d'Angers, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Marion de Jong
- Department of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Fijs W B van Leeuwen
- Interventional Molecular Imaging Laboratory, Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Abstract
Cysteine cathepsins are a group of proteases involved in many physiological and pathological processes. Yet, the selective detection and inhibition of individual cathepsins is still challenging. This editorial is discussing the context of a recent work introducing a designed ankyrin repeat protein (DARPin) as novel approach for selective targeting of the protease cathepsin B.
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Kramer L, Turk D, Turk B. The Future of Cysteine Cathepsins in Disease Management. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2017; 38:873-898. [PMID: 28668224 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2017.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Revised: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Since the discovery of the key role of cathepsin K in bone resorption, cysteine cathepsins have been investigated by pharmaceutical companies as drug targets. The first clinical results from targeting cathepsins by activity-based probes and substrates are paving the way for the next generation of molecular diagnostic imaging, whereas the majority of antibody-drug conjugates currently in clinical trials depend on activation by cathepsins. Finally, cathepsins have emerged as suitable vehicles for targeted drug delivery. It is therefore timely to review the future of cathepsins in drug discovery. We focus here on inflammation-associated diseases because dysregulation of the immune system accompanied by elevated cathepsin activity is a common feature of these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lovro Kramer
- Jozef Stefan Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; International Postgraduate School Jozef Stefan, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Dušan Turk
- Jozef Stefan Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Center of Excellence CIPKEBIP, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Boris Turk
- Jozef Stefan Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Center of Excellence CIPKEBIP, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 113, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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