Oncogenic functions of the FOXC2 transcription factor: a hallmarks of cancer perspective

Epigenetic regulation of gene expression is a fundamental determinant of molecular and cellular function, and epigenetic reprogramming in the context of cancer has emerged as one of the key enabling characteristics associated with acquisition of the core hallmarks of this disease. As such, there has been renewed interest in studying the role of transcription factors as epigenetic regulators of gene expression in cancer. In this review, we discuss the current state of knowledge surrounding the oncogenic functions of FOXC2, a transcription factor that frequently becomes dysregulated in a variety of cancer types. In addition to highlighting the clinical impact of aberrant FOXC2 activity in cancer, we discuss mechanisms by which this transcription factor becomes dysregulated in both tumor and tumor-associated cells, placing particular emphasis on the ways in which FOXC2 promotes key hallmarks of cancer progression. Finally, we bring attention to important issues related to the oncogenic dysregulation of FOXC2 that must be addressed going forward in order to improve our understanding of FOXC2-mediated cancer progression and to guide prognostic and therapeutic applications of this knowledge in clinical settings.

FOXC2 as a prognostic marker and a potential molecular target in patients with human solid tumors

Background

Forkhead Box Protein C2 (FOXC2) belongs to the Forkhead/Wing-helix family. The regulatory role of this transcription factor in physiological function and carcinogenic activity has been proven in subsequent investigations. However, there is still scarcity of evidence on the relationship between FOXC2 expression and prognosis in human solid tumors. We conducted this meta-analysis to evaluate the role of FOXC2 as a prognosis factor and a possible target marker in human solid tumors.

Methods

PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, and the Cochrane library database were all searched methodically. Eligible publications on FOXC2 in human solid tumors were gathered and reviewed. The effect sizes were calculated using pooled hazard ratios (HRs) or odds ratios (ORs) with the corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI). Statistical analysis was conducted with Stata SE12.0.

Results

This meta-analysis comprised 3,267 patients from 20 studies covering a variety of solid tumors. Increased FOXC2 expression was related to shorter overall survival (OS) (HR = 2.05, 95% CI: 1.73–2.42). High expression of FOXC2 is associated with lymph node metastases (OR = 3.33, 95% CI: 2.65–4.19), TNM stage (OR = 3.09, 95% CI: 2.00–4.78), and age (OR = 1.26, 95% CI: 1.06–1.50), according to the pooled ORs. However, no significant association was observed between the high expression of FOXC2 and sex, tumor size or tumor differentiation.

Conclusion

Increased expression of FOXC2 is associated with unfavored OS, lymph node metastases, TNM stage, and age. FOXC2 is a promising prognostic marker and a novel target marker in human solid tumors.

FOXC2 Promotes Vasculogenic Mimicry in Ovarian Cancer

FOXC2 is a forkhead family transcription factor that plays a critical role in specifying mesenchymal cell fate during embryogenesis. FOXC2 expression is associated with increased metastasis and poor survival in various solid malignancies. Using in vitro and in vivo assays in mouse ovarian cancer cell lines, we confirmed the previously reported mechanisms by which FOXC2 could promote cancer growth, metastasis, and drug resistance, including epithelial-mesenchymal transition, stem cell-like differentiation, and resistance to anoikis. In addition, we showed that FOXC2 expression is associated with vasculogenic mimicry in mouse and human ovarian cancers. FOXC2 overexpression increased the ability of human ovarian cancer cells to form vascular-like structures in vitro, while inhibition of FOXC2 had the opposite effect. Thus, we present a novel mechanism by which FOXC2 might contribute to cancer aggressiveness and poor patient survival.

Forkhead Box Transcription Factors: Double-Edged Swords in Cancer

A plethora of treatment options exist for cancer therapeutics, but many are limited by side effects and either intrinsic or acquired resistance. The need for more effective targeted cancer treatment has led to the focus on forkhead box (FOX) transcription factors as possible drug targets. Forkhead factors such as FOXA1 and FOXM1 are involved in hormone regulation, immune system modulation, and disease progression through their regulation of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Forkhead factors can influence cancer development, progression, metastasis, and drug resistance. In this review, we discuss the various roles of forkhead factors in biological processes that support cancer as well as their function as pioneering factors and their potential as targetable transcription factors in the fight against cancer.

Downregulation of PART1 Inhibits Proliferation and Differentiation of Hep3B Cells by Targeting hsa-miR-3529-3p/FOXC2 Axis

Background

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are an important subtype of noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) and microRNA sponges regulate protein-coding gene expression. The lncRNA prostate androgen-regulated transcript 1 (PART1) was implicated in the process of several cancer pathogeneses. However, studies on the regulation of PART1 expression and its mechanism in liver cancer are lacking.

Methods

qRT-PCR and western blot were used to detect PART1 levels in liver cancer serums and cell lines. Cell proliferation, migration, and invasion were detected using CCK8 assays, cell clones, and transwell assays. Interaction between PART1 and miR-3529-3p and forkhead box protein C2 (FOXC2) was confirmed using dual-luciferase reporter assays.

Results

We revealed that expression levels of PART1 and FOXC2 are significantly upregulated and the miR-3529-3p expression level significantly decreases in the serum while high expression level of PART1 is positively associated with tumour size, BCLC stage, and TNM stage. shRNA of PART1 can significantly reduce the ability of cell migration and invasion by regulating AKT signalling associated with the reduction of MMP-2 and MMP-9 protein expression. Dual-luciferase reporter assays showed that PART1 can sponge miR-3529-3p, which targets FOXC2 in liver cancer cells. The promoting or suppressing effect of PART1 for Hep3B cell proliferation, invasion, and migration is revised by miR-3529-3p mimics and inhibitors.

Conclusion

Results showed that downregulation of PART1 can partially inhibit proliferation and differentiation by targeting hsa-miR-3529-3p/FOXC2 axis.

The prognostic significance of FOXC2 gene expression in cancer: A comprehensive analysis of RNA-seq data from the cancer genome atlas

The FOXC2 transcription factor is a key regulator of tumor progression in many cancer types. Known to exhibit an array of oncogenic functions when dysregulated, FOXC2 has emerged as a useful biomarker for predicting disease aggression and patient outcome. In this regard, increased expression and nuclear localization of FOXC2 protein in tumor tissue have become well-established as poor prognostic factors for many cancer types. However, whether FOXC2 gene expression can serve as a similarly useful RNA-level biomarker has remained largely unexplored. Therefore, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of TCGA RNA-seq data to evaluate whether FOXC2 gene expression levels in primary tumor biopsies correlate with patient outcome. We report herein that increased expression of FOXC2 RNA in tumor tissue is a poor prognostic factor for patient survival in many cancer types. Moreover, we also found that FOXC2 gene expression predicts cancer patient response to several commonly prescribed chemotherapeutics. Together, these data highlight FOXC2 RNA expression in tumor tissue as an important biomarker with prognostic significance for solid tumors of diverse origin.

Meta-analysis of the prognostic significance of FOXC2 in various tumors

Objective

Many studies have focused on correlations between forkhead box protein C2 (FOXC2) and various tumors but discrepant results have been reported. Thus, we conducted this meta-analysis to assess the prognostic role of FOXC2 in tumors.

Methods

Four electronic databases (PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and SinoMed) were screened through September 2019.

Results

The final analysis included 15 reports and 2115 patients; results suggested that cancer patients with FOXC2 had worse overall survival (hazard ratio 2.14, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.74–2.64), cancer-specific survival (hazard ratio 2.65, 95% CI 1.44–4.89), and disease-free survival (hazard ratio 1.93, 95% CI 1.49–2.50) than patients lacking FOXC2.

Conclusions

The presence of FOXC2 was associated with poor survival in cancer patients. FOXC2 could be a promising prognostic marker in the future.

FOXC2 Promotes Oxaliplatin Resistance by Inducing Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition via MAPK/ERK Signaling in Colorectal Cancer

Background

Chemoresistance is a major obstacle to improving the survival rate of colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. Forkhead box protein C2 (FOXC2), a member of the forkhead box (Fox) transcription factor family, is reported to be an important regulator of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and plays a key role in tumor progression. However, little is known about the effects of FOXC2 on oxaliplatin (OXA) resistance in CRC.

Methods

OXA-resistant cells were generated from HCT116 cells. CCK-8, colony formation, flow cytometry and Transwell assays were used to compare the characteristics of OXA-resistant HCT116/OXA cells and the corresponding parental HCT116 cells. The expression of FOXC2 was confirmed by qRT-PCR and Western blotting in HCT116/OXA and HCT116 cells. Gain- and loss-of-function assays were performed to evaluate the effects of FOXC2 on OXA sensitivity and EMT in HCT116/OXA and HCT116 cells both in vitro and in vivo, and the possible molecular mechanisms were investigated.

Results

The relative expression of FOXC2 was significantly increased in HCT116/OXA cells compared with the parental HCT116 cells. Upregulation of FOXC2 in HCT116 cells reduced OXA sensitivity and promoted EMT. However, knockdown of FOXC2 in HCT116/OXA cells markedly increased the in vitro and in vivo sensitivity of HCT116/OXA cells to OXA by regulating EMT progression. Furthermore, FOXC2 activated MAPK/ERK signaling, and blockade of ERK attenuated FOXC2-induced EMT and FOXC2-enhanced OXA resistance.

Conclusion

FOXC2 induced EMT to promote oxaliplatin resistance by activating the MAPK/ERK signaling pathway. FOXC2 may be a potential therapeutic target for overcoming OXA resistance in human CRC.

A Forkhead Box Protein C2 Inhibitor: Targeting Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition and Cancer Metastasis

The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) has been suggested as a new target for therapeutic intervention of metastatic cancer. Forkhead box protein C2 (FOXC2) is known to be necessary for initiating and maintaining EMT, and therefore bestows on cancer cells metastatic and cancer stem cell (CSC)-like phenotypes, allowing cells to acquire higher motility, invasiveness, self-renewal, and therapy resistance. Here, we describe the first inhibitor of FOXC2, MC-1-F2. MC-1-F2 was able to induce cadherin switching and reverse EMT through the degradation of FOXC2 and blocking of its nuclear localization. In addition, MC-1-F2 was very effective in inhibiting cancer cell migration and invasion. As the first small-molecule inhibitor of FOXC2 and the first compound targeting EMT-associated transcription factor, MC-1-F2 will pave the way for a new anticancer therapeutic agent targeting metastatic cancer and help to elucidate the network of EMT signaling pathways.

Emerging roles and mechanisms of FOXC2 in cancer

Forkhead box protein C2 (FOXC2), a transcription factor of the forkhead/winged-helix family, is required for embryonic and prenatal development. FOXC2 acts as a crucial modulator during both angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis via multiple angiogenic and lymphangiogenic pathways, respectively. Although recent studies have shed light on the emerging role of FOXC2 in cancer, very little is known about the precise underlying mechanisms. The purpose of this review is to summarize the current understanding of FOXC2 and provide potential mechanistic explanations of the relationship between FOXC2 and cancer, as well as discuss the prospect for future research in the promising prognostic value of FOXC2 in cancer.

Detection of microRNA-200b may predict the inhibitory effect of gefitinib on non-small cell lung cancer and its potential mechanism

The present study aimed to investigate the association and underlying mechanisms between microRNA-200b level and the inhibitory effect of gefitinib on non-small cell lung cancer. In total, 100 patients (43 males and 57 females; median age, 63 years) with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) were selected. All patients were administered with gefitinib orally (250 mg/day) and the effect of gefitinib was evaluated according to the Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors guidelines. Tumor tissue and plasma samples were collected prior to and subsequent to therapy. The microRNA-200b levels in tissues and plasma were determined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR). A549 cells were cultured in vitro and transfected with microRNA-200b mimic. Using Cell Counting Kit-8 assay, the proliferation inhibition detected was induced by 0.1 µM gefitinib in transfected or non-transfected A549 cells. Cell apoptosis and cell cycle progression were analyzed by flow cytometry and the migration of cells was observed by Transwell assay. In addition, mRNA and protein levels of insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF-1R), protein kinase B (AKT) and extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK), together with the phosphorylation of AKT and ERK in A549 cells, were determined by quantitative PCR and western blot analysis, respectively. The microRNA-200b levels in gefitinib-insensitive patients were decreased compared with gefitinib-sensitive patients. Transfection with microRNA-200b mimic increased the gefitinib induced proliferation inhibition, apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in A549 cells. Also, transfection with microRNA-200b mimic increased the migration inhibitory effect of gefitinib on A549 cells. Decreased IGF-1R expression together with reduced phosphorylation of AKT and ERK were observed following transfection of A549 cells with the microRNA 200b mimic. In conclusion, detection of microRNA-200b may predict the inhibitory effect of gefitinib on NSCLC. Upregulation of microRNA-200b led to the elevated sensitivity of glioma cells to gefitinib, and this effect may be explained as microRNA-200b being able to inhibit the expression of IGF-1R, thereby reducing the activation of downstream phosphoinositide 3-kinase/AKT and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways.

Induction of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) and inhibition on adipogenesis: Two different sides of the same coin? Feasible roles and mechanisms of transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) in age-related thymic involution

Age-related thymic involution is characterized by a loss of thymic epithelial cells (TECs) and a concomitant increase in adipocytes, but the mechanisms involved in thymic adipogenesis are still not clear. Transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) is a pleiotropic cytokine that has been reported to be up-regulated with age in thymic stromal cells in both human and mouse. However, the exact role of TGF-β1 in age-related thymic involution remains to be further elucidated. On the basis of previous findings, we propose a novel hypothesis that TGF-β1 functions a dual role in age-related thymic involution. On one hand, up-regulation of TGF-β1 promotes epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) process in TECs via activating forkhead box protein C2 (FoxC2). On the other hand, TGF-β1 inhibits the transdifferentiation of EMT-derived mesenchymal cells to adipocytes in the thymus. If confirmed, our hypothesis will not only provide further evidence supporting that the transdifferentiation of TECs into pre-adipocytes represents a source of thymic adiposity during age-related thymic involution, but also uncover a unique role of TGF-β1 in the transdifferentiation of TECs into pre-adipocytes. Collectively, the inhibition of TGF-β1 may serve as a strategy to hinder age-related thymic involution or even to restore thymic function in the elderly.

Preoperative Grading of Astrocytic Supratentorial Brain Tumors with Diffusion-Weighted Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Apparent Diffusion Coefficient

Background

Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) is a form of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) based on measuring the random Brownian motion of water molecules within the biological tissues and is particularly useful in tumor characterization.

Objectives

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the diagnostic value of DW MRI and the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) for preoperative grading of astrocytic supratentorial brain tumors.

Patients and Methods

Twenty-three patients (14 females, 9 males, mean age 43 years) with astrocytic supratentorial brain tumors underwent preoperative conventional MR imaging and DW MRI. The minimum, maximum and mean ADC values and the minimum, maximum and mean DWI signal intensities of each tumor were taken by placing several regions of interest in the tumor on DWI images and ADC maps. To assess the relationship between these values and the tumor grade, we used the Mann-Whitney U test and the Spearman correlation. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was used to determine the cutoff value of the minimum, maximum and mean ADC values and the minimum, maximum and mean DWI signal intensities that had the best composition of sensitivity and specificity for differentiating low-grade and high-grade astrocytic brain tumors.

Results

According to the pathology reports, 10 patients had low-grade astrocytomas (grades I, II) and 13 patients had high-grade astrocytomas (grades III, IV). The minimum ADC value showed a significantly inverse correlation with astrocytic tumor grade (P = 0.006). The correlation between the maximum ADC value and the maximum DWI signal intensity with tumor grade was direct (P = 0.013, P = 0.035). According to the ROC analysis, the cutoff values of 0.843 × 10^-3 mm²/s, 2.117 × 10^-3 mm²/s and 165.2 for the minimum ADC, maximum ADC and maximum DWI respectively, obtained the best combination of sensitivity and specificity for distinguishing low-grade and high-grade astrocytomas.

Conclusion

Measuring minimum ADC, maximum ADC and maximum DWI signal intensity can provide valuable information for grading of astrocytic supratentorial brain tumors before surgery.