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Klementova S, Poncarova M. Selected widely prescribed pharmaceuticals: toxicity of the drugs and the products of their photochemical degradation to aquatic organisms. J Appl Biomed 2024; 22:1-11. [PMID: 38505965 DOI: 10.32725/jab.2024.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Cholesterol-lowering drugs, antidiabetics, antiarrhythmics, antidepressants, and antibiotics belong to the most prescribed drugs worldwide. Because of the manufacture, excretion, and improper disposal of leftover drugs, the drugs enter waste waters and, subsequently, surface waters. They have been detected in surface waters all over the world, from concentrations of ng/l to concentrations several orders of magnitude higher. Since pharmaceuticals are designed to be both biologically and chemically stable, photochemical degradation by sun radiation represents a way of transformation in the natural environment. This review provides a survey of how selected drugs of the above-mentioned classes affect aquatic organisms of different trophic level. The emphasis is on the harmful effects of phototransformation products, an area of scientific investigation that has only attracted attention in the past few years, revealing the surprising fact that products of photochemical degradation might be even more toxic to aquatic organisms than the parent drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarka Klementova
- University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Martina Poncarova
- University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
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2
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Molecular Responses of Daphnids to Chronic Exposures to Pharmaceuticals. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24044100. [PMID: 36835510 PMCID: PMC9964447 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24044100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Pharmaceutical compounds are among several classes of contaminants of emerging concern, such as pesticides, heavy metals and personal care products, all of which are a major concern for aquatic ecosystems. The hazards posed by the presence of pharmaceutical is one which affects both freshwater organisms and human health-via non-target effects and by the contamination of drinking water sources. The molecular and phenotypic alterations of five pharmaceuticals which are commonly present in the aquatic environment were explored in daphnids under chronic exposures. Markers of physiology such as enzyme activities were combined with metabolic perturbations to assess the impact of metformin, diclofenac, gabapentin, carbamazepine and gemfibrozil on daphnids. Enzyme activity of markers of physiology included phosphatases, lipase, peptidase, β-galactosidase, lactate dehydrogenase, glutathione-S-transferase and glutathione reductase activities. Furthermore, targeted LC-MS/MS analysis focusing on glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway and the TCA cycle intermediates was performed to assess metabolic alterations. Exposure to pharmaceuticals resulted in the changes in activity for several enzymes of metabolism and the detoxification enzyme glutathione-S-transferase. Metabolic perturbations on key pathways revealed distinct groups and metabolic fingerprints for the different exposures and their mixtures. Chronic exposure to pharmaceuticals at low concentrations revealed significant alterations of metabolic and physiological endpoints.
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Blackwell BR, Ankley GT, Biales AD, Cavallin JE, Cole AR, Collette TW, Ekman DR, Hofer RN, Huang W, Jensen KM, Kahl MD, Kittelson AR, Romano SN, See MJ, Teng Q, Tilton CB, Villeneuve DL. Effects of Metformin and its Metabolite Guanylurea on Fathead Minnow (Pimephales promelas) Reproduction. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2022; 41:2708-2720. [PMID: 35920346 PMCID: PMC10634263 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Metformin, along with its biotransformation product guanylurea, is commonly observed in municipal wastewaters and subsequent surface waters. Previous studies in fish have identified metformin as a potential endocrine-active compound, but there are inconsistencies with regard to its effects. To further investigate the potential reproductive toxicity of metformin and guanylurea to fish, a series of experiments was performed with adult fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas). First, explants of fathead minnow ovary tissue were exposed to 0.001-100 µM metformin or guanylurea to investigate whether the compounds could directly perturb steroidogenesis. Second, spawning pairs of fathead minnows were exposed to metformin (0.41, 4.1, and 41 µg/L) or guanylurea (1.0, 10, and 100 µg/L) for 23 days to assess impacts on reproduction. Lastly, male fathead minnows were exposed to 41 µg/L metformin, 100 µg/L guanylurea, or a mixture of both compounds, with samples collected over a 96-h time course to investigate potential impacts to the hepatic transcriptome or metabolome. Neither metformin nor guanylurea affected steroid production by ovary tissue exposed ex vivo. In the 23 days of exposure, neither compound significantly impacted transcription of endocrine-related genes in male liver or gonad, circulating steroid concentrations in either sex, or fecundity of spawning pairs. In the 96-h time course, 100 µg guanylurea/L elicited more differentially expressed genes than 41 µg metformin/L and showed the greatest impacts at 96 h. Hepatic transcriptome and metabolome changes were chemical- and time-dependent, with the largest impact on the metabolome observed at 23 days of exposure to 100 µg guanylurea/L. Overall, metformin and guanylurea did not elicit effects consistent with reproductive toxicity in adult fathead minnows at environmentally relevant concentrations. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:2708-2720. © 2022 SETAC. This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett R. Blackwell
- Great Lakes Toxicology and Ecology Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, Minnesota, USA
| | - Gerald T. Ankley
- Great Lakes Toxicology and Ecology Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, Minnesota, USA
| | - Adam D. Biales
- Great Lakes Toxicology and Ecology Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Jenna E. Cavallin
- Great Lakes Toxicology and Ecology Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, Minnesota, USA
| | - Alexander R. Cole
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Duluth, Minnesota, USA
| | - Timothy W. Collette
- Ecosystem Processes Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Drew R. Ekman
- Ecosystem Processes Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Rachel N. Hofer
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Duluth, Minnesota, USA
| | - Weichun Huang
- Great Lakes Toxicology and Ecology Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Kathleen M. Jensen
- Great Lakes Toxicology and Ecology Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, Minnesota, USA
| | - Michael D. Kahl
- Great Lakes Toxicology and Ecology Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, Minnesota, USA
| | | | - Shannon N. Romano
- Ecosystem Processes Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Mary Jean See
- Great Lakes Toxicology and Ecology Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Quincy Teng
- Ecosystem Processes Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | | | - Daniel L. Villeneuve
- Great Lakes Toxicology and Ecology Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, Minnesota, USA
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Nielsen KM, DeCamp L, Birgisson M, Palace VP, Kidd KA, Parrott JL, McMaster ME, Alaee M, Blandford N, Ussery EJ. Comparative Effects of Embryonic Metformin Exposure on Wild and Laboratory-Spawned Fathead Minnow ( Pimephales promelas) Populations. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:10193-10203. [PMID: 35748754 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c01079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Metformin is routinely detected in aquatic ecosystems because of its widespread use as a treatment for Type 2 diabetes. Laboratory studies have shown that exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of metformin can alter metabolic pathways and impact the growth of early life stage (ELS) fish; however, it is unknown whether these effects occur in wild populations. Herein, we evaluate whether findings from laboratory studies are representative and describe the relative sensitivities of both populations. Duplicate exposures (0, 5, or 50 μg/L metformin) were conducted using wild- and lab-spawned fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) embryos. Apart from the water source, exposure conditions remained constant. Wild embryos were exposed to previously dosed lake water to account for changes in bioavailability, while reconstituted freshwater was used for the laboratory study. Developmental metformin exposure differentially impacted the growth and morphology of both cohorts, with energy dyshomeostasis and visual effects indicated. The fitness of wild-spawned larvae was impacted to a greater extent relative to lab-spawned fish. Moreover, baseline data reveal important morphological differences between wild- and lab-spawned ELS fatheads that may diminish representativeness of lab studies. Findings also confirm the bioavailability of metformin in naturally occurring systems and suggest current exposure scenarios may be sufficient to negatively impact developing fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin M Nielsen
- Department of Marine Science, University of Texas at Austin, Port Aransas, Texas 78373, USA
| | - Lily DeCamp
- Department of Marine Science, University of Texas at Austin, Port Aransas, Texas 78373, USA
| | - Mona Birgisson
- Department of Marine Science, University of Texas at Austin, Port Aransas, Texas 78373, USA
| | - Vince P Palace
- International Institute for Sustainable Development─Experimental Lakes Area, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3B 0T4, Canada
- University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Karen A Kidd
- Department of Biology & School of Earth, Environment & Society, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L8, Canada
| | - Joanne L Parrott
- Aquatic Contaminants Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Mark E McMaster
- Aquatic Contaminants Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Mehran Alaee
- Aquatic Contaminants Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | | | - Erin J Ussery
- Aquatic Contaminants Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
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Elizalde-Velázquez GA, Gómez-Oliván LM, Islas-Flores H, Hernández-Navarro MD, García-Medina S, Galar-Martínez M. Oxidative stress as a potential mechanism by which guanylurea disrupts the embryogenesis of Danio rerio. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 799:149432. [PMID: 34365262 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Metformin is one the most prescribed drug to treat type 2 diabetes. In wastewater treatment plants, this drug is bacterially transformed to guanylurea, which occurs at higher concentrations in the aquatic environments than its parent compound. Since there is a huge knowledge gap about the toxicity of this metabolite on aquatic organisms, we aimed to investigate the impact of guanylurea on the embryonic development and oxidative stress biomarkers of zebrafish (Danio rerio). For this effect, zebrafish embryos (4 h post fertilization) were exposed to 25, 50, 100, 200, 250, 25,000, 50,000, 75,000 μg/L guanylurea until 96 h post fertilization. Guanylurea led to a significant delay in the hatching process in all exposure groups. Furthermore, this transformation product affected the embryonic development of fish, inducing severe body alterations and consequently leading to their death. The most pronounced malformations were malformation of tail, scoliosis, pericardial edema, yolk deformation and craniofacial malformation. Concerning oxidative stress response, we demonstrated that guanylurea induced the antioxidant activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase in zebrafish embryos. In addition, the levels of lipid peroxidation, protein carbonyl and hydroperoxide content were also increased in the embryos exposed to this transformation product. However, the integrated biomarker response (IBR) analysis carried out in this study demonstrated that oxidative damage biomarkers got more influence over the embryos than antioxidant enzymes. Thus, we can conclude that guanylurea induces oxidative stress in zebrafish embryos, and that this transformation product impair the normal development of this freshwater organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo Axel Elizalde-Velázquez
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Paseo Colón intersección Paseo Tollocan, Colonia Residencial Colón, CP 50120 Toluca, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - Leobardo Manuel Gómez-Oliván
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Paseo Colón intersección Paseo Tollocan, Colonia Residencial Colón, CP 50120 Toluca, Estado de México, Mexico.
| | - Hariz Islas-Flores
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Paseo Colón intersección Paseo Tollocan, Colonia Residencial Colón, CP 50120 Toluca, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - María Dolores Hernández-Navarro
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Paseo Colón intersección Paseo Tollocan, Colonia Residencial Colón, CP 50120 Toluca, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - Sandra García-Medina
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Acuática, Departamento de Farmacia, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Unidad Profesional Adolfo López Mateos, Av. Wilfrido Massieu s/n y cerrada Manuel Stampa, Col. Industrial Vallejo, Ciudad de México CP 07700, Mexico
| | - Marcela Galar-Martínez
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Paseo Colón intersección Paseo Tollocan, Colonia Residencial Colón, CP 50120 Toluca, Estado de México, Mexico
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Knoll S, Jacob S, Mieck S, Triebskorn R, Braunbeck T, Huhn C. Development of a capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry method for the analysis of metformin and its transformation product guanylurea in biota. Anal Bioanal Chem 2020; 412:4985-4996. [PMID: 32572543 PMCID: PMC7334255 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-02759-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Revised: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
A method with capillary electrophoresis coupled to mass spectrometry was optimized to determine the uptake of metformin and its metabolite guanylurea by zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos and brown trout (Salmo trutta f. fario) exposed under laboratory conditions. Metformin was extracted from fish tissues by sonication in methanol, resulting in an absolute recovery of almost 90%. For the extraction of guanylurea from brown trout, solid-phase extraction was implemented with a recovery of 84%. The use of a mixture of methanol and glacial acetic acid as a non-aqueous background electrolyte was vital to achieve robust analysis using a bare fused-silica capillary with an applied voltage of +30 kV. Problems with adsorption associated with an aqueous background electrolyte were eliminated using a non-aqueous background electrolyte made of methanol/acetic acid (97:3) with 25 mM ammonium acetate (for zebrafish embryos) or 100 mM ammonium acetate (for brown trouts), depending on the sample complexity and matrix influences. High resolution and high separation selectivity from matrix components were achieved by optimization of the ammonium acetate concentration in the background electrolyte. An extensive evaluation of matrix effects was conducted with regard to the complex matrices present in the fish samples. They required adapting the background electrolyte to higher concentrations. Applying this method to extracts of zebrafish embryos and brown trout tissue samples, limits of detection for both metformin and guanylurea in zebrafish embryos (12.2 μg/l and 15 μg/l) and brown trout tissues (15 ng/g and 34 ng/g) were in the low μg/l or ng/g range. Finally, metformin and guanylurea could be both quantified for the first time in biota samples from exposure experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Knoll
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 18, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Stefanie Jacob
- Animal Physiological Ecology Group, Institute of Evolution and Ecology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 5, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Susanna Mieck
- Aquatic Ecology and Toxicology Group, Centre for Organismal Studies, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 504, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rita Triebskorn
- Animal Physiological Ecology Group, Institute of Evolution and Ecology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 5, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Thomas Braunbeck
- Aquatic Ecology and Toxicology Group, Centre for Organismal Studies, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 504, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Carolin Huhn
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 18, Tübingen, Germany.
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