Caveolin enhances hepatocellular carcinoma cell metabolism, migration, and invasion in vitro via a hexokinase 2‐dependent mechanism

The effect and mechanism of hexokinase-2 on cisplatin resistance in lung cancer cells A549

BACKGROUND

Hexokinase (HK) is the first rate-limiting enzyme of glycolysis, which can convert glucose to glucose-6-phosphate. There are several subtypes of HK, including HK2, which is highly expressed in a variety of different tumors and is closely associated with survival.

METHODS

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) A549 cells with stable overexpression and knockdown of HK2 were obtained by lentivirus transfection. The effects of overexpression and knockdown of HK2 on proliferation, migration, invasion, and glycolytic activity of A549 cells were investigated. The effects on apoptosis were also analyzed using western blot and flow cytometry. In addition, the mitochondria and cytoplasm were separated and the expression of apoptotic proteins was detected by western blot respectively.

RESULTS

Upregulation of HK2 could promote glycolysis, cell proliferation, migration, and invasion, which would be inhibited through the knockdown of HK2. HK2 overexpression contributed to cisplatin resistance, whereas HK2 knockdown enhanced cisplatin-induced apoptosis in A549 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Overexpression of HK2 can promote the proliferation, migration, invasion, and drug resistance of A549 cells by enhancing aerobic glycolysis and inhibiting apoptosis. Reducing HK2 expression or inhibiting HK2 activity can inhibit glycolysis and induce apoptosis in A549 cells, which is expected to be a potential treatment method for NSCLC.

Metabolic reprogramming and its clinical implication for liver cancer

Cancer cells often encounter hypoxic and hypo-nutrient conditions, which force them to make adaptive changes to meet their high demands for energy and various biomaterials for biomass synthesis. As a result, enhanced catabolism (breakdown of macromolecules for energy production) and anabolism (macromolecule synthesis from bio-precursors) are induced in cancer. This phenomenon is called "metabolic reprogramming," a cancer hallmark contributing to cancer development, metastasis, and drug resistance. HCC and cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) are 2 different liver cancers with high intertumoral heterogeneity in terms of etiologies, mutational landscapes, transcriptomes, and histological representations. In agreement, metabolism in HCC or CCA is remarkably heterogeneous, although changes in the glycolytic pathways and an increase in the generation of lactate (the Warburg effect) have been frequently detected in those tumors. For example, HCC tumors with activated β-catenin are addicted to fatty acid catabolism, whereas HCC tumors derived from fatty liver avoid using fatty acids. In this review, we describe common metabolic alterations in HCC and CCA as well as metabolic features unique for their subsets. We discuss metabolism of NAFLD as well, because NAFLD will likely become a leading etiology of liver cancer in the coming years due to the obesity epidemic in the Western world. Furthermore, we outline the clinical implication of liver cancer metabolism and highlight the computation and systems biology approaches, such as genome-wide metabolic models, as a valuable tool allowing us to identify therapeutic targets and develop personalized treatments for liver cancer patients.

Hepatocellular carcinoma: Preclinical and clinical applications of nanotechnology with the potential role of carbohydrate receptors

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common types of liver cancer; accounts for 75-85% of cases. The treatment and management of HCC involve different sanative options like surgery, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, etc. Recently, various advancements have been introduced for the diagnosis and targeting of hepatic tumor cells. Among these, biomarkers are considered the primary source for the diagnosis and differentiation of tumor cells. With the advancement in the field of nanotechnology, different types of nanocarriers have been witnessed in tumor targeting. Nanocarriers such as nanoparticles, liposomes, polymeric micelles, nanofibers, etc. are readily prepared for effective tumor targeting with minimal side-effects. The emergence of various approaches tends to improve the effectiveness of these nanocarriers as demonstrated in ample clinical trials. This review focuses on the significant role of carbohydrates such as mannose, galactose, fructose, etc. in the development, diagnosis, and therapy of HCC. Hence, the current focus of this review is to acknowledge various perspectives regarding the occurrence, diagnosis, treatment, and management of HCC.

Identification of key genes in hepatocellular carcinoma associated with exposure to TCDD and α-endosulfan by WGCNA

2,3,7,8-tet-rachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and α-endosulfan are two typical persistent organic pollutants (POPs), both of which accumulate in the liver and have potential carcinogenic hepatic effects. The underlying molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remain elusive when exposure to POPs. The aim of this study is to explore the key genes involved in HCC when exposure to TCDD and α-endosulfan by weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA). First, we performed co-expressed analysis on HCC and normal condition, based on WGCNA. In results, seven co-expressed modules were identified from 56 human liver samples, and the brown module correlated with five stages of HCC. Subsequently, we predicted that human five liver diseases were associated with exposure to TCDD and/or α-endosulfan by Nextbio analysis. Functional enrichment analysis showed that the brown module enriched in oxidation-reduction process, DNA replication, oxidoreductase activity and aging, which were the same as the results when exposure to the mixture of TCDD and α-endosulfan. Lastly, based on the protein-protein interaction network, we identified three novel genes including HK2, EXO1 and PFKP as key genes in HCC associated with exposure to TCDD and α-endosulfan mixture. In addition, survival analysis of key genes in Kaplan-Meier plotter demonstrated that aberrant expression levels of all the three key genes were associated with poor prognosis of HCC. Finally, Western blot analysis confirmed that protein expression levels of PFKP and HK2 in the three exposed groups were significantly elevated, while EXO1 were significantly upregulated when exposure to TCDD and α-endosulfan mixture in HepaRG cells. This study provides a new perspective to the understanding of the genetic mechanism of HCC when exposure to POPs.

Prognostic and immunological role of sulfatide-related lncRNAs in hepatocellular carcinoma

Background

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary malignancy of the liver. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play important roles in the occurrence and development of HCC through multiple pathways. Our previous study reported the specific molecular mechanism for sulfatide regulation of integrin αV expression and cell adhesion in HCC cells through lncRNA AY927503. Next, it is necessary to identify more sulfatide-related lncRNAs, explore their clinical signifcance, and determine new targeted treatment strategies.

Methods

Microarrays were used to screen a complete set of lncRNAs with different expression profiles in sulfatide-treated cells. Sulfatide-related lncRNAs expression data and corresponding HCC patient survival information were obtained from the The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, and the prognosis prediction model was constructed based on Cox regression analysis. Methylated RNA immunoprecipitation with next generation sequencing (MeRIP-seq) was used to detemine the effect of sulfatide on lncRNAs m6A modification. Tumor Immune Estimation Resource (TIMER) and Gene set nnrichment analysis (GSEA) were utilized to enrich the immune and functional pathways of sulfatide-related lncRNAs.

Results

A total of 85 differentially expressed lncRNAs (|Fold Change (FC)|>2, P<0.05) were screened in sulfatide-treated HCC cells. As a result, 24 sulfatide-related lncRNAs were highly expressed in HCC tissues, six of which were associated with poor prognosis in HCC patients. Based on thses data, a sulfatide-related lncRNAs prognosis assessment model for HCC was constructed. According to this risk score analysis, the overall survival (OS) curve showed that the OS of high-risk patients was significantly lower than that of low-risk patients (P<0.05). Notably, the expression difference in sulfatide-related lncRNA NRSN2-AS1 may be related to sulfatide-induced RNA m6A methylation. In addition, the expression level of NRSN2-AS1 was significantly positively correlated with immune cell infiltration in HCC and participated in the peroxisome and Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) signaling pathways.

Conclusions

In conclusion, sulfatide-related lncRNAs might be promising prognostic and therapeutic targets for HCC.

Multifaceted roles of aerobic glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation in hepatocellular carcinoma

Liver cancer is a common malignancy with high morbidity and mortality rates. Changes in liver metabolism are key factors in the development of primary hepatic carcinoma, and mitochondrial dysfunction is closely related to the occurrence and development of tumours. Accordingly, the study of the metabolic mechanism of mitochondria in primary hepatic carcinomas has gained increasing attention. A growing body of research suggests that defects in mitochondrial respiration are not generally responsible for aerobic glycolysis, nor are they typically selected during tumour evolution. Conversely, the dysfunction of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) may promote the proliferation, metastasis, and invasion of primary hepatic carcinoma. This review presents the current paradigm of the roles of aerobic glycolysis and OXPHOS in the occurrence and development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Mitochondrial OXPHOS and cytoplasmic glycolysis cooperate to maintain the energy balance in HCC cells. Our study provides evidence for the targeting of mitochondrial metabolism as a potential therapy for HCC.

Critical Investigation of the Usability of Hepatoma Cell Lines HepG2 and Huh7 as Models for the Metabolic Representation of Resectable Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Metabolic alterations in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are fundamental for the development of diagnostic screening and therapeutic intervention since energy metabolism plays a central role in differentiated hepatocytes. In HCC research, hepatoma cell lines (HCLs) like HepG2 and Huh7 cells are still the gold standard. In this study, we characterized the metabolic profiles of primary human hepatoma cells (PHCs), HCLs and primary human hepatocytes (PHHs) to determine their differentiation states. PHCs and PHHs (HCC-PHHs) were isolated from surgical specimens of HCC patients and their energy metabolism was compared to PHHs from non-HCC patients and the HepG2 and Huh7 cells at different levels (transcript, protein, function). Our analyses showed successful isolation of PHCs with a purity of 50–73% (CK18+). The transcript data revealed that changes in mRNA expression levels had already occurred in HCC-PHHs. While many genes were overexpressed in PHCs and HCC-PHHs, the changes were mostly not translated to the protein level. Downregulated metabolic key players of PHCs revealed a correlation with malign transformation and were predominantly pronounced in multilocular HCC. Therefore, HCLs failed to reflect these expression patterns of PHCs at the transcript and protein levels. The metabolic characteristics of PHCs are closer to those of HCC-PHHs than to HCLs. This should be taken into account for future optimized tumor metabolism research.

RNA Binding Motif Protein 3 Promotes Cell Metastasis and Epithelial–Mesenchymal Transition Through STAT3 Signaling Pathway in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Purpose

RNA binding motif protein 3 (RBM3) has been reported to be dysregulated in various cancers and associated with tumor aggressiveness. Epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) is an important biological process by which tumor cells acquire metastatic abilities. This study aimed to explore the regulatory and molecular mechanisms of RBM3 in EMT process.

Methods

Western blotting, IHC, and qRT-PCR were performed to evaluate the expression of target genes. Transwell assay was used to investigate the migration and invasion. RNA immunoprecipitation and luciferase reporter assay were performed to explore the correlation of RBM3 with STAT3 or microRNA-383. Animal HCC models were used to explore the role of RBM3 in metastasis in vivo.

Results

RBM3 was highly expressed in HCC tissues compared to healthy tissues, and its level was negatively correlated with the prognosis of HCC patients. RBM3 overexpression accelerated migration and invasion, promoted EMT process, and activated STAT3 signaling. EMT induced by RBM3 was not only attenuated by inhibiting pSTAT3 via S3I-201 but also abolished by suppressing STAT3 expression via siRNAs. Mechanistically, RBM3 increased STAT3 expression by stabilizing STAT3 mRNA via binding to its mRNA. As an upstream target of RBM3, microRNA-383 inhibited RBM3 expression by binding to its 3ʹUTR and resulted in the inhibition of the EMT process. Inhibition of RBM3 in HCC animal models prolonged survival and ameliorated malignant phenotypes in mice.

Conclusion

Our findings support that RBM3 promotes HCC metastasis by activating STAT3 signaling.

Lactate: The Mediator of Metabolism and Immunosuppression

The Warburg effect, one of the hallmarks of tumors, produces large amounts of lactate and generates an acidic tumor microenvironment via using glucose for glycolysis. As a metabolite, lactate not only serves as a substrate to provide energy for supporting cell growth and development but also acts as an important signal molecule to affect the biochemical functions of intracellular proteins and regulate the biological functions of different kinds of cells. Notably, histone lysine lactylation (Kla) is identified as a novel post-modification and carcinogenic signal, which provides the promising and potential therapeutic targets for tumors. Therefore, the metabolism and functional mechanism of lactate are becoming one of the hot fields in tumor research. Here, we review the production of lactate and its regulation on immunosuppressive cells, as well as the important role of Kla in hepatocellular carcinoma. Lactate and Kla supplement the knowledge gap in oncology and pave the way for exploring the mechanism of oncogenesis and therapeutic targets. Research is still needed in this field.

Caveolin-1 increases glycolysis in pancreatic cancer cells and triggers cachectic states

In pancreatic cancer, autocrine insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and paracrine insulin stimulate both IGF-1 receptor (IGF1R) and insulin receptor (IR) to increase tumor growth and glycolysis. In pancreatic cancer patients, cancer-induced glycolysis increases hepatic gluconeogenesis, skeletal muscle proteolysis, and fat lipolysis and, thereby, causes cancer cachexia. As a protein coexisting with IGF1R and IR, caveolin-1 (cav-1) may be involved in pancreatic cancer-induced cachexia. We undertook the present study to test this hypothesis. Out of wild-type MiaPaCa2 and AsPC1 human pancreatic cancer cell lines, we created their stable sub-lines whose cav-1 expression was diminished with RNA interference or increased with transgene expression. When these cells were studied in vitro, we found that cav-1 regulated IGF1R/IR expression and activation and also regulated cellular glycolysis. We transplanted the different types of MiaPaCa2 cells in growing athymic mice for 8 weeks, using intact athymic mice as tumor-free controls. We found that cav-1 levels in tumor grafts were correlated with expression levels of the enzymes that regulated hepatic gluconeogenesis, skeletal muscle proteolysis, and fat lipolysis in the respective tissues. When the tumors had original or increased cav-1, their carriers' body weight gain was less than the tumor-free reference. When cav-1 was diminished in tumors, the tumor carriers' body weight gain was not changed significantly, compared to the tumor-free reference. In conclusion, cav-1 in pancreatic cancer cells stimulated IGF1R/IR and glycolysis in the cancer cells and triggered cachectic states in the tumor carrier.

Caveolin-1 facilitates cell migration by upregulating nuclear receptor 4A2/retinoid X receptor α-mediated β-galactoside α2,6-sialyltransferase I expression in human hepatocarcinoma cells

It has been reported that caveolin-1 (Cav-1) acts as a tumor promoter in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Our previous studies showed that Cav-1 promoted mouse hepatocarcinoma cell adhesion to fibronectin by upregulating β-galactoside α2,6-sialyltransferase I (ST6Gal-I) expression. However, the detailed mechanism by which Cav-1 regulates ST6Gal-I is not fully understood. In this study, we found that the expression levels of Cav-1 and ST6Gal-I were increased in HCC tissues and correlated with poor prognosis. Cav-1 upregulated ST6Gal-I expression to promote the migration and invasion of HCC cells by inducing epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Importantly, the binding of the transcription factor nuclear receptor 4A2/retinoid X receptor alpha (NR4A2/RXRα) to the -550/-200 region of the ST6GAL1 promoter was critical for Cav-1-induced ST6GAL1 gene expression. Furthermore, Cav-1 expression activated the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K/AKT/mTOR) signaling pathway, followed by upregulation of NR4A2 expression and phosphorylation of RXRα, which facilitated the complex of NR4A2 and phosphorylated RXRα forming and binding to the ST6GAL1 promoter region to induce its transcription. Finally, in the diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced HCC murine model, the expression levels of NR4A2, p-RXRα, ST6Gal-I, and α2,6-linked sialic acid decreased in parallel in Cav-1^-/- mice compared with Cav-1^+/+ mice, which was consistent with the above in vitro results. These findings provide insight into the mechanism of ST6GAL1 gene transcription mediated by Cav-1, which may lead to the development of novel therapeutic strategies targeting metastasis in HCC.

The function of Cav-1 in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell migration and invasion induced by ectopic ATP5B

Ectopic ATP5B, which is located in a unique type of lipid raft caveolar structure, can be upregulated by cholesterol loading. As the structural component of caveolae, Cav-1 is a molecular hub that is involved in transmembrane signaling. In a previous study, the ATP5B-specific binding peptide B04 was shown to inhibit the migration and invasion of prostate cancer cells, and the expression of ATP5B on the plasma membrane of MDA-MB-231 cells was confirmed. The present study investigated the effect of ectopic ATP5B on the migration and invasion of MDA-MB-231 cells and examined the involvement of Cav-1. Cholesterol loading increased the level of ectopic ATP5B and promoted cell migration and invasion. These effects were blocked by B04. Ectopic ATP5B was physically colocalized with Cav-1, as demonstrated by double immunofluorescence staining and coimmunoprecipitation. After Cav-1 knockdown, the migration and invasion abilities of MDA-MB-231 cells were significantly decreased, suggesting that Cav-1 influences the function of ectopic ATP5B. Furthermore, these effects were not reversed after treatment with cholesterol. We concluded that Cav-1 may participate in MDA-MB-231 cell migration and invasion induced by binding to ectopic ATP5B.

Androgen Receptor Stimulates Hexokinase 2 and Induces Glycolysis by PKA/CREB Signaling in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) escapes growth inhibition by upregulating hexokinase 2 (HK2); however, the mechanism by which tumor cells upregulate HK2 remains unclear.

AIM

We aimed to investigate the role of androgen receptor (AR) signalling in promoting HK2 expression in HCC.

METHODS

The expressions of AR and HK2 in HCC tissues were analyzed by immunohistochemistry. Cell proliferation was determined using the CCK-8 assay, and the molecular mechanism of AR in the regulation of HK2 was evaluated by immunoblotting and luciferase assays.

RESULTS

AR expression is positively correlated with HK2 staining by an immunohistochemical analysis. The manipulation of AR expression changed HK2 expression and glycolysis. AR signaling promoted the growth of HCC by enhancing HK2-mediated glycolysis. Moreover, AR stimulated HK2 levels and glycolysis by potentiating protein kinase A/cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element-binding (CREB) protein signaling. CREB silencing decreased HK2 expression and inhibited AR-mediated HCC glycolysis. AR affected the sensitivity of HCC cells to glycolysis inhibitors by regulating downstream phosphorylated (p)-CREB.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that AR at least partially induced glycolysis via p-CREB regulation of HK2 in HCC cells. Thus, this pathway should be considered for the design of novel therapeutic methods to target AR-overexpressing HCC.

NR2F1-AS1/miR-140/HK2 Axis Regulates Hypoxia-Induced Glycolysis and Migration in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Background

Hypoxia is an important feature for the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Long noncoding RNA nuclear receptor subfamily 2 group F member 1 antisense RNA 1 (NR2F1-AS1) is dysregulated in HCC. However, the role and mechanism of N2RF1-AS1 in hypoxia-induced glycolysis and migration remain unclear.

Materials and Methods

Tumor tissues and adjacent samples were harvested from 40 HCC patients. HCC cells were treated by hypoxia. The levels of NR2F1-AS1, microRNA (miR)-140, and hexokinase 2 (HK2) were examined via quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction or Western blot. Glycolysis was analyzed via glucose uptake, lactate production, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels. Cell migration was analyzed via transwell assay. The target association was analyzed via dual-luciferase reporter assay and RNA immunoprecipitation.

Results

NR2F1-AS1 level was enhanced in HCC tissues and cells. High expression of NR2F1-AS1 indicated poor overall survival. Silence of NR2F1-AS1 repressed hypoxia-induced glycolysis and migration in HCC cells. NR2F1-AS1 could regulate HK2 expression by modulating miR-140. miR-140 down-regulation or HK2 up-regulation mitigated the influence of NR2F1-AS1 silence on hypoxia-induced glycolysis and migration in HCC cells.

Conclusion

NR2F1-AS1 knockdown restrained hypoxia-induced glycolysis and migration in HCC cells via increasing miR-140 and decreasing HK2.

Glucose Metabolism and Oxidative Stress in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Role and Possible Implications in Novel Therapeutic Strategies

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) metabolism is redirected to glycolysis to enhance the production of metabolic compounds employed by cancer cells to produce proteins, lipids, and nucleotides in order to maintain a high proliferative rate. This mechanism drives towards uncontrolled growth and causes a further increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS), which could lead to cell death. HCC overcomes the problem generated by ROS increase by increasing the antioxidant machinery, in which key mechanisms involve glutathione, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), and hypoxia-inducible transcription factor (HIF-1α). These mechanisms could represent optimal targets for innovative therapies. The tumor microenvironment (TME) exerts a key role in HCC pathogenesis and progression. Various metabolic machineries modulate the activity of immune cells in the TME. The deregulated metabolic activity of tumor cells could impair antitumor response. Lactic acid-lactate, derived from the anaerobic glycolytic rate of tumor cells, as well as adenosine, derived from the catabolism of ATP, have an immunosuppressive activity. Metabolic reprogramming of the TME via targeted therapies could enhance the treatment efficacy of anti-cancer immunotherapy. This review describes the metabolic pathways mainly involved in the HCC pathogenesis and progression. The potential targets for HCC treatment involved in these pathways are also discussed.

CSN5 upregulates glycolysis to promote hepatocellular carcinoma metastasis via stabilizing the HK2 protein

Aerobic glycolysis promotes metastasis and correlates with poorer clinical outcomes in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), but the controllers and mechanisms of abnormally activated glycolysis remain unclear. Herein, we demonstrated that the fifth component of the constitutive photomorphogenic 9 (COP9) signalosome complex (COPS5/CSN5) was a controller of glycolysis. For the first time, we found that CSN5 could influence the expression of glycolytic metabolism-associated proteins, especially hexokinase 2 (HK2), a glycolytic rate-limiting enzyme. In addition, we found that CSN5 was associated with HK2 overexpression in HCC tissues. Silencing CSN5 expression caused a decrease in the level of the HK2 protein, glucose uptake, glycolysis capacity and the production of glycolytic intermediates in HCC cells. Re-expression of HK2 rescued the decreased glycolytic flux induced by CSN5 knockdown, whereas inhibition of HK2 alleviated CSN5-enhanced glycolysis. Functionally, CSN5 regulated HCC cell invasion and metastasis via HK2-mediated glycolysis. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that CSN5 attenuated the ubiquitin-proteasome system-mediated degradation of HK2 through its deubiquitinase function. Inhibition of CSN5 kinase activity by curcumin decreased HK2 protein expression and glycolysis, repressed the metastasis of HCC cells in vitro and in vivo, and prolonged the survival time of tumor-bearing nude mice. Overall, our study identified CSN5 as a controller of glycolysis, and it may be a potential treatment target for HCC.

Lithium effects on vesicular trafficking in hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most commonly malignant tumors worldwide, characterized by the presence of many heterogeneous molecular cell events that contribute to tumor growth and progression. Endocytic processes are intimately involved in various pathological conditions, including cancer, since they interface with various cellular signaling programs. The ability of lithium to induce cell death and autophagy and affect cell proliferation and intracellular signaling has been shown in various experimental tumor models. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of lithium on vesicular transport in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Using transmission electron microscopy we have characterized the endocytic apparatus in hepatocellular carcinoma-29 (HCC-29) cells in vivo and detailed changes in endocytotic vesicles after 20 mM lithium carbonate administration. Immunofluorescent analysis was used to quantify cells positive for EEA1-positive early endosomes, Rab11-positive recycling endosomes and Rab7-positive late endosomes. Lithium treatment caused an increase in EEA1- and Rab11-positive structures and a decrease in Rab7-positive vesicles. Thus, lithium affects diverse endocytic pathways in HCC-29 cells which may modulate growth and development of hepatocellular carcinoma.

Sugar alcohol-based polymeric gene carriers: Synthesis, properties and gene therapy applications

Advances in the field of nanomedicine have led to the development of various gene carriers with desirable cellular responses. However, unfavorable stability and physicochemical properties have hindered their applications in vivo. Therefore, multifunctional, smart nanocarriers with unique properties to overcome such drawbacks are needed. Among them, sugar alcohol-based nanoparticle with abundant surface chemistry, numerous hydroxyl groups, acceptable biocompatibility and biodegradable property are considered as the recent additions to the growing list of non-viral vectors. In this review, we present some of the major advances in our laboratory in developing sugar-based polymers as non-viral gene delivery vectors to treat various diseases. We also discuss some of the open questions in this field. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Recently, the development of sugar alcohol-based polymers conjugated with polyethylenimine (PEI) has attracted tremendous interest as gene delivery vectors. First, the natural backbone of polymers with their numerous hydroxyl groups display a wide range of hyperosmotic properties and can thereby enhance the cellular uptake of genetic materials via receptor-mediated endocytosis. Second, conjugation of a PEI backbone with sugar alcohols via Michael addition contributes to buffering capacity and thereby the proton sponge effect. Last, sugar alcohol based gene delivery systems improves therapeutic efficacy both in vitro and in vivo.