Enthalpy of Adsorption and Isotherms for Adsorption of Naphthenic Acid onto Clays

Continuous column adsorption of naphthenic acids from synthetic and real oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) using carbon-based adsorbents

In this study, activated petroleum coke (APC) and commercial activated carbon (CAC) were used in a continuous adsorption column for removal of model naphthenic acids and organics from real oil sands process-affected water (OSPW). Diphenylacetic acid and 2-naphthoic acid, two model naphthenic acid (NA) compounds, were removed completely by the APC in a continuous column operation. Due to the complex nature of organics in OSPW, total organic carbon (TOC) was measured to determine the effectiveness of OSPW treatment by APC. The removal of TOC from OSPW at its natural pH 8 by APC was only 25%, whereas acidification at pH 4 followed by APC adsorption removed 96% of the initial TOC. When compared to a commercial activated carbon, the APC showed an average of 20% higher organics removal. The experimental breakthrough curves were better fitted by Thomas model in comparison to Adams-Bohart and Yoon-Nelson models. The regeneration of APC was conducted using methanol with 0.01 wt% NaOH (pH = 11.7) and a total of four cycles of adsorption and regeneration were conducted with marginal loss of adsorption sites.

Coupling Solvent Extraction Units to Cyclic Adsorption Units

The possibility of regenerating the solvent of extraction units by cyclic adsorption was analyzed. This combination seems convenient when extraction is performed with a high solvent-to-impurity ratio, making other choices of solvent regeneration, typically distillation, unattractive. To our knowledge, the proposed regeneration scheme has not been considered before in the open literature. Basic relations were developed for continuous and discontinuous extraction/adsorption combinations. One example, deacidification of plant oil with alcohol, was studied in detail using separate experiments for measuring process parameters and simulation for predicting performance at different conditions. An activated carbon adsorbent was regenerated by thermal swing, making cyclic operation possible. When extracting the acid with methanol in a spray column, feed = 4 L min−1, solvent = 80 L min−1, feed impurity level 140 mmol L−1, and extract concentration 7.6 mmol L−1, the raffinate reaches a purity of 1.2 mmol L−1, the solvent being regenerated cyclically in the adsorber (364 kg) to an average of 0.7 mmol L−1. Regeneration of the solvent by cyclic adsorption had a low heat duty. Values of 174 kJ per litre of solvent compared well with the high values for vaporization of the whole extract phase (1011 kJ L−1).

Facile fabrication of Sudan red particle microcapsules by a polymerizable gemini surfactant and molecular assembly mechanisms

An efficient method was developed to encapsulate water insoluble organic particles of Sudan red III (SR) in aqueous suspensions by using a polymerizable cationic gemini surfactant, 1,3-bis(N,N-dimethyl-N-cetylammonium)-2-(propylacrylate dibromide) (AGC₁₆). The AGC₁₆ coated SR microcapsules (AGC₁₆@SR) were prepared by absorption of AGC₁₆ on the surface of SR, followed by in situ homopolymerization (PAGC₁₆). Several measurements, including transmission and scanning electron microscopy, isothermal titration calorimetry, zeta potential, electron paramagnetic resonance and small angle X-ray scattering, were performed to determine the adsorption amount of AGC₁₆, and the layer structures and the molecular assembly mechanism in the AGC₁₆@SR and PAGC₁₆@SR systems, respectively. For comparison purposes, the polymerizable cationic surfactant with one head group and a single alkyl chain, acryloyloxyethyl-N,N-dimethyl-N-cetylammonium bromide (referred to as ASC₁₆), as well as the systems of ASC₁₆@SR and PASC₁₆@SR were also investigated in parallel. It was found that AGC₁₆ molecules and their aggregates were simultaneously assembled into a shell layer, in which the saturated adsorption amount of AGC₁₆ on SR is less than 1/2 that of ASC₁₆, but the assembly layer of AGC₁₆ is more hydrophobic with greater packing tightness compared with that of ASC₁₆. It was also revealed that after in situ homopolymerization, the microcapsule shell becomes more compact. In the case of PAGC₁₆@SR, the layers show higher surface roughness and irregularity compared with that of PASC₁₆@SR. Moreover, the sustained release behavior of SR was also evaluated. The results revealed that PAGC₁₆@SR performed well for SR controlled release, which was sorted by release performance as the following sequence: PAGC₁₆@SR > AGC₁₆@SR > PASC₁₆@SR > ASC₁₆@SR. Thus, the polymerizable cationic gemini surfactant holds substantial potential to be developed as an ideal candidate of soft matter to construct efficient controllable release systems.

Naphthenic acids degradation and toxicity mitigation in tailings wastewater systems and aquatic environments: a review

Naphthenic acids, NAs (classical formula C(n)H(2n+z)O(2), where n is the carbon numbers, z represents zero or negative even integers), found in oil sands process waters (OSPWs), are toxic to aquatic environments depending upon several factors such as pH, salinity, molecular size and chemical structure of NAs. Among various available methods, biodegradation seems to be generally the most cost-effective method for decreasing concentrations of NAs (n ≤ 21) and reducing their associated toxicity in OSPW, however the mechanism by which the biodegradation of NAs occurs are poorly understood. Ozonation is superior over biodegradation in decreasing higher molecular weight alkyl branched NAs (preferentially, n ≥ 22, -6 ≥ z ≥ -12) as well as enabling accelerated biodegradation and reducing toxicity. Photolysis (UV at 254 nm) is effective in cleaving higher molecular weight NAs into smaller fragments that will be easier for microorganisms to degrade, whereas photocatalysis can metabolize selective NAs (0 ≥ z ≥ -6) efficiently and minimize their associated toxicity. Phytoremediation is applicable for metabolizing specific NAs (O(2), O(3), O(4), and O(5) species) and minimizing their associated toxicities. Petroleum coke (PC) adsorption is effective in reducing the more structurally complex NAs (preferentially 12 ≥ n ≥ 18 and z = -10, -12) and their toxicity in OSPWs, depending upon the PC content, pH and temperature. Several factors have influence on the degradation of NAs in OSPWs and aquatic environments, which include molecular mass and chemical structure of NAs, sediment structure, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, and bacteria types.

Microbial biodegradation of aromatic alkanoic naphthenic acids is affected by the degree of alkyl side chain branching

Naphthenic acids (NAs) occur naturally in oil sands and enter the environment through natural and anthropogenic processes. NAs comprise toxic carboxylic acids that are difficult to degrade. Information on NA biodegradation mechanisms is limited, and there are no studies on alkyl branched aromatic alkanoic acid biodegradation, despite their contribution to NA toxicity and recalcitrance. Increased alkyl side chain branching has been proposed to explain NA recalcitrance. Using soil enrichments, we examined the biodegradation of four aromatic alkanoic acid isomers that differed in alkyl side chain branching: (4'-n-butylphenyl)-4-butanoic acid (n-BPBA, least branched); (4'-iso-butylphenyl)-4-butanoic acid (iso-BPBA); (4'-sec-butylphenyl)-4-butanoic acid (sec-BPBA) and (4'-tert-butylphenyl)-4-butanoic acid (tert-BPBA, most branched). n-BPBA was completely metabolized within 49 days. Mass spectral analysis confirmed that the more branched isomers iso-, sec- and tert-BPBA were transformed to their butylphenylethanoic acid (BPEA) counterparts at 14 days. The BPEA metabolites were generally less toxic than BPBAs as determined by Microtox assay. n-BPEA was further transformed to a diacid, showing that carboxylation of the alkyl side chain occurred. In each case, biodegradation of the carboxyl side chain proceeded through beta-oxidation, which depended on the degree of alkyl side chain branching, and a BPBA degradation pathway is proposed. Comparison of 16S rRNA gene sequences at days 0 and 49 showed an increase and high abundance at day 49 of Pseudomonas (sec-BPBA), Burkholderia (n-, iso-, tert-BPBA) and Sphingomonas (n-, sec-BPBA).

Microbial naphthenic Acid degradation

Naphthenic acids (NAs) are an important group of trace organic pollutants predominantly comprising saturated aliphatic and alicyclic carboxylic acids. NAs are ubiquitous; occurring naturally in hydrocarbon deposits (petroleum, oil sands, bitumen, and crude oils) and also have widespread industrial uses. Consequently, NAs can enter the environment from both natural and anthropogenic processes. NAs are highly toxic, recalcitrant compounds that persist in the environment for many years, and it is important to develop efficient bioremediation strategies to decrease both their abundance and toxicity in the environment. However, the diversity of microbial communities involved in NA-degradation, and the mechanisms by which NAs are biodegraded, are poorly understood. This lack of knowledge is mainly due to the difficulties in identifying and purifying individual carboxylic acid compounds from complex NA mixtures found in the environment, for microbial biodegradation studies. This paper will present an overview of NAs, their origin and fate in the environment, and their toxicity to the biota. The review describes the microbial degradation of both naturally occurring and chemically synthesized NAs. Proposed pathways for aerobic NA biodegradation, factors affecting NA biodegradation rates, and possible bioremediation strategies are also discussed.

Adsorption of triblock copolymers and their homopolymers at laponite clay/solution interface. Role played by the copolymer nature

The adsorption thermodynamics of copolymers, based on ethylene oxide (EO) and propylene oxide (PO) units, at the laponite (RD) clay/liquid interface was determined at 298 K. The copolymer nature was tuned at molecular level by changing the hydrophilicity, the architecture and the molecular weight (Mw) keeping constant the EO/PO ratio. Polyethylene (PEGs) and polypropylene (PPGs) glycols with varying Mw and their mixture were also investigated to discriminate the role of the EO and the PO segments in the adsorption process. Enthalpies of transfer of RD, at fixed concentration, from water to the aqueous macromolecule solutions as functions of the macromolecule molality were determined. They were treated quantitatively by means of a model based on two equilibria: (1) one-to-one binding between the macromolecule and the site on the solid and (2) two-to-one binding following which one macromolecule interacts with another one adsorbed onto the solid. The good agreement between the equilibrium constants obtained from calorimetry and those determined from kinetic experiments confirmed the reliability of the experimental and theoretical approaches. Almost all of the systems investigated are highlighted by the one-to-one binding; the L35 and 10R5 systems present both equilibria. The insights provided by the thermodynamics of adsorption of their homopolymers onto RD were fruitful in obtaining detailed information on the nature of the forces involved between RD and the copolymers. The data obtained in the present work clearly evidenced that for comparable polymer Mw, PPG is more suitable in building up a steric barrier around the RD particles and, indeed, exhibits several advantages and no drawbacks. Moreover, the parent copolymers may properly functionalize the RD surface by exploiting both their high affinity to the solid surface and the ability to self-assemble onto it as L35 and 10R5 clearly showed.

A detailed field-based evaluation of naphthenic acid mobility in groundwater

An anaerobic plume of process-affected groundwater was characterized in a shallow sand aquifer adjacent to an oil sands tailings impoundment. Based on biological oxygen demand measurements, the reductive capacity of the plume is considered minimal. Major dissolved components associated with the plume include HCO(3), Na, Cl, SO(4), and naphthenic acids (NAs). Quantitative and qualitative NA analyses were performed on groundwater samples to investigate NA fate and transport in the subsurface. Despite subsurface residence times exceeding 20 years, significant attenuation of NAs by biodegradation was not observed based on screening techniques developed at the time of the investigation. Relative to conservative tracers (i.e., Cl), overall NA attenuation in the subsurface is limited, which is consistent with batch sorption and microcosm studies performed by other authors. Insignificant biological oxygen demand and low concentrations of dissolved As (<10 microg L(-1)) in the plume suggest that the potential for secondary trace metal release, specifically As, via reductive dissolution reactions driven by ingress of process-affected water is minimal. It is also possible that readily leachable As is not present in significant quantities within the sediments of the study area. Thus, for similar plumes of process-affected groundwater in shallow sand aquifers which may occur as oil sands mining expands, a reasonable expectation is for NA persistence, but minimal trace metal mobilization.

In situ bioremediation of naphthenic acids contaminated tailing pond waters in the athabasca oil sands region--demonstrated field studies and plausible options: a review

Currently, there are three industrial plants that recover oil from the lower Athabasca oil sands area, and there are plans in the future for several additional mines. The extraction procedures produce large volumes of slurry wastes contaminated with naphthenic acids (NAs). Because of a "zero discharge" policy the oil sands companies do not release any extraction wastes from their leases. The process-affected waters and fluid tailings contaminated with NAs are contained on-site primarily in large settling ponds. These fluid wastes from the tailing ponds can be acutely and chronically toxic to aquatic organisms, and NAs have been associated with this toxicity. The huge tailings containment area must ultimately be reclaimed, and this is of major concern to the oil sands industry. Some reclamation options have been investigated by both pioneering industries (Syncrude Energy Inc. and Suncor Inc.) with mixed results. The bioremediation techniques have limited success to date in biodegrading NAs to levels below 19 mg/L. Some tailing pond waters have been stored for more than 10 years, and it appears that the remaining high molecular weight NAs are refractory to the natural biodegradation process in the ponds. Some plausible options to further degrade the NAs in the tailings pond water include: bioaugmentation with bacteria selected to degrade the more refractory classes of NAs; the use of attachment materials such as clays to concentrate both the NA and the NA-degrading bacteria in their surfaces and/or pores; synergistic association between algae and bacteria consortia to promote efficient aerobic degradation; and biostimulation with nutrients to promote the growth and activity of the microorganisms.

A review of the occurrence and fate of naphthenic acids in aquatic environments

Naphthenic acids are comprised of a large collection of saturated aliphatic and alicyclic carboxylic acids found in hydrocarbon deposits (petroleum, oil sands bitumen, and crude oils). Naphthenic acids enter surface water systems primarily through effluent discharge, but also through groundwater mixing and erosion of riverbank oil deposits. Of the possible environmental receptors (i.e., air, soil, and water), the most significant is water. Ambient levels of naphthenic acids in northern Alberta rivers in the Athabasca Oil Sands are generally below 1 mg L(-1). However, tailings pond waters may contain as high as 110 mg L(-1). The complexity of natural naphthenic acids in petroleum deposits poses an analytical challenge as reflected by the several techniques reported for quantitation of naphthenic acids in the environment. Although naphthenic acids are known to be persistent biomarkers used in identification of oil source maturation, little is established regarding their relative degradation pathways in aquatic environments. Published research related to the potential for microbiological degradation and adsorption to typical Athabasca Oil Sands soils reveal that naphthenic acids are likely to persist in the water column and, with prolonged exposure, accumulate in sediments. However, other than a very general knowledge of environmental persistence, the occurrence and fate of naphthenic acids has been sparsely studied. This article brings together some of those environmental persistence results, as well as detailed information regarding the origin of naphthenic acids in tailings ponds, chemistry and toxicological considerations, current analytical methods for aquatic sampling, and areas of future remediation research.