Detection of intravenous fluid extravasation using resistance measurements

Sensing Technologies for Extravasation Detection: A Review

Peripheral intravenous catheters are administered for various purposes, such as blood sampling or the infusion of contrast agents and drugs. Extravasation happens when the catheter is unintentionally directed outside of the vein due to movement of the intravascular catheter, enhanced vascular permeability, or occlusion of the upstream vein. In this article, extravasation and its mechanism are discussed. Subsequently, the sensorized devices (e.g., single sensor and multimodal detection) to identify the extravasation phenomena are highlighted. In this review article, we have shed light on both physiological and engineering points of view of extravasation and its detection approaches. This review provides an overview on the most recent and relevant technologies that can help in the early detection of extravasation.

Evaluation of Impulse-Oscillometric Extravasation Prevention

Infusion liquid extravasation occurs in up to 6% of all intensive care patients and up to 78% for neonates. Currently, emerging extravasation cannot be detected. An impulse-oscillometric method to detect the onset of extravasation is tested and evaluated in vitro. A pinch valve compresses the infusion line, an impulse is formed, and the pressure response is recorded at the peripheral vein catheter. The response of this catheter-sensor-system is analysed by measuring the transient-step response (n = 10) for an opened and closed pinch valve. Trials utilising porcine shanks (n = 15) are performed with venous and extravasational catheter placement. The fundamental frequency, maximum amplitude, damping and decay constant of the pressure response are tested for differences between venous and extravasational placement. The response of the catheter-sensor-system shows no significant differences between an opened or closed pinch valve. The maximum amplitude, frequency, damping and decay constant of the pressure response differ highly significant for venous and extravasational catheter placement (p < .001). The parameters also differ depending on the presence of infusion liquid flow (p < .001). The method enables the detection of the onset of extravasation. Further tests are performed to investigate the relationships between impulse response and hydraulic impedance.

Younger age and in situ duration of peripheral intravenous catheters were risk factors for extravasation in a retrospective paediatric study

AIM

Epidemiological data on the incidence and risk factors of extravasation of peripheral intravenous catheters (PIVC) in neonates and children are scarce and that is what this study explored.

METHODS

This was a one-year retrospective study of all neonates and paediatric intensive care patients with at least one recorded PIVC at the Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland, in 2013. The extravasation rate was determined for all patients, including neonates below 28 days, and for all PIVCs. Multivariate analysis of the associated risk factors was performed.

RESULTS

We analysed 1300 PIVC in 695 paediatric patients with a median age of 1.5 years. The overall extravasation incidence was 17.6% for all patients and 11.7% for PIVC. The overall incidence rate of PIVC extravasation was 4.5 per 100 catheters days, and the risk was highest in the 201 neonates, at 28.4%. The incidence rate four days after insertion of the PIVC was around three times higher than on day one. Neonates and the in situ duration of PIVCs were associated risk factors (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Extravasation was frequent and neonates were particularly at risk. Younger age and longer in situ PIVC duration were independent risk factors for extravasation.

Toward Non-Invasive and Automatic Intravenous Infiltration Detection: Evaluation of Bioimpedance and Skin Strain in a Pig Model

Intravenous (IV) therapy is prevalent in hospital settings, where fluids are typically delivered with an IV into a peripheral vein of the patient. IV infiltration is the inadvertent delivery of fluids into the extravascular space rather than into the vein (and requires urgent treatment to avoid scarring and severe tissue damage), for which medical staff currently needs to check patients periodically. In this paper, the performance of two non-invasive sensing modalities, electrical bioimpedance (EBI), and skin strain sensing, for the automatic detection of IV infiltration was investigated in an animal model. Infiltrations were physically simulated on the hind limb of anesthetized pigs, where the sensors for EBI and skin strain sensing were co-located. The obtained data were used to examine the ability to distinguish between infusion into the vein and an infiltration event using bioresistance and bioreactance (derived from EBI), as well as skin strain. Skin strain and bioresistance sensing could achieve detection rates greater than 0.9 for infiltration fluid volumes of 2 and 10 mL, respectively, for a given false positive, i.e., false alarm rate of 0.05. Furthermore, the fusion of multiple sensing modalities could achieve a detection rate of 0.97 with a false alarm rate of 0.096 for 5mL fluid volume of infiltration. EBI and skin strain sensing can enable non-invasive and real-time IV infiltration detection systems. Fusion of multiple sensing modalities can help to detect expanded range of leaking fluid volumes. The provided performance results and comparisons in this paper are an important step towards clinical translation of sensing technologies for detecting IV infiltration.

Critical parameters in drug delivery by intravenous infusion

INTRODUCTION

Intravenous infusion is commonly used to deliver medications and fluids to patients. The duration of an infusion is short (hours) in the operating room where intravenous agents are infused to anesthetize patients and to manage circulation. Critically ill patients often receive infusions for days. Infusion technology has become increasingly sophisticated and complex. The technical advances broaden the clinical application of intravenous infusion methodology and provide safety features.

AREAS COVERED

This article provides an historical overview of intravenous infusion and discusses components of infusion systems. A section describes configuration of components to meet clinical needs. The article describes physical properties of infusion systems, emphasizing how critical parameters of resistance to flow, infusion pump performance and interactions between fluid flows and the dead volume influence medication and fluid delivery. The authors emphasize the use of infusions in the intensive care and operating room environments, although the general principles apply to other clinical settings.

EXPERT OPINION

Intravenous infusion systems contribute significantly to clinical care, but in a deceptively simple way. Several critical parameters combine to influence the performance of an infusion system, with a number of pitfalls potentially confounding utility of the technology. Safe and effective clinical application of intravenous infusion technology depends on an appreciation of this complexity which impacts the performance of infusion systems.

Infusion technology: a cause for alarm

BACKGROUND

[corrected] Volumetric infusion pumps are widely used in paediatric practice. Tissue extravasation is a hazard. The occlusion pressure limit alarm, although not intended to detect extravasation, is the only warning sign present to indicate flow faults in the infusion systems.

METHODS

Extravasations were created in the subcutaneous plane of 20 limbs of five piglets with normal saline via an infusion pump. Five flow rates were used with each piglet allocated to one: 100 ml.h-1, 200 ml.h-1, 300 ml.h-1, 400 ml.h-1, 500 ml.h-1. The occlusion pressure limit was first set at low and adjusted to medium, then to high, upon alarm activation. Line pressure at 5-min intervals and upon alarm activation and volume of infusate given were measured. Limb diameters before and after infusion were measured.

RESULTS

Six out of 20 cases failed to activate any alarm. The low, medium and high occlusion pressure limit alarms were activated in 14, 1 and 0 instances, respectively. The incidence of alarm activation is higher in the forelimb compared with the hindlimb (P=0.001). The tissue compliance and volume infused at alarm activation are significantly lower in the former (P < 0.05). Line pressure increases with increase in flow rates for the same limb (P=0.013 Fore, P=0.005 Hind).

CONCLUSIONS

Occlusion pressure limit alarm cannot reliably detect extravasation especially at sites with high compliance, low flow rates, even at low occlusion limit. Line pressure depends on interplay of site (compliance) and flow rate and is independent of volume extravasated. Users must be aware of the set occlusion pressure limit. Repeated clinical assessment remains vital.