The effects of multisensory structured language instruction on native language and foreign language aptitude skills of at-risk high school foreign language learners

Is there a "disability" for learning a foreign language?

Recently, talk of a new type of learning disability (LD)--a foreign language learning disability, or FLLD--has made its way into the LD and foreign language (FL) literature. However, no empirical evidence has been published to support the concept of a "disability" for FL learning by those professionals who use the term. In this article, the author takes the position that there is not a distinct "disability" that can be called an FLLD. He reviews several years of research evidence indicating that any proposal for such a distinct entity is problematic. To support his position, he reviews problems with the current definition and diagnostic criteria for LD. He then cites the many difficulties inherent in the development and use of (a) a logically consistent, easily operationalized, and empirically valid definition of and (b) diagnostic criteria for the FLLD concept. The author then discusses how FL learning problems occur along a continuum of very strong to very poor language learners, and he explains how the proponents of an FLLD misuse the concept of FL aptitude. Finally, the author cites implications resulting from the research evidence on FL learning problems and use of the term FLLD.

Students classified as LD who petitioned for or fulfilled the college foreign language requirement-are they different? A replication study

This replication study compared 86 petition students who received course substitutions for the college foreign language (FL) requirement with 40 nonpetition students who fulfilled the FL requirement by passing FL courses on cognitive and academic achievement measures and graduating grade point average. The results showed significant differences between the two groups, favoring the nonpetition group on one measure, the American College Testing (ACT) score, when IQ was used as a covariate; however, no significant group differences remained when ACT score was used as a covariate. More than half of the 126 petition and nonpetition students did not meet a minimum criterion for classification as learning disabled (LD), and more than half of both groups (54% and 63%, respectively) were not classified as LD before enrolling in college. Sixty percent of the petition students either had not taken an FL course in college or had achieved only grades of withdrawal before petitioning for substitution of the FL requirement. Implications addressed include petition students' persistence in fulfilling the FL requirement, students' use of instructional accommodations and services, criteria used to classify students as LD, use of the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT), and why some students classified as LD pass FL courses and other students classified as LD do not.

Students classified as LD who received course substitutions for the college foreign language requirement: a replication study

This replication study examined whether 158 college students classified as learning disabled (LD) who were granted course substitutions for the foreign language (FL) requirement would display significant cognitive and academic achievement differences when grouped by levels of IQ-achievement and achievement-achievement discrepancy and by level of performance on an FL aptitude test (Modern Language Aptitude Test; MLAT), phonological/orthographic processing measures, and in FL courses. The results showed that there were few differences among groups with differing levels of IQ-achievement or achievement-achievement discrepancy (i.e., < 1.0 SD, 1.0-1.49 SD, and > 1.50 SD) on MLAT and American College Testing (ACT) scores, graduating grade point average (GPA), or college FL GPA. The results also showed that between groups who scored at or above versus below the 15th percentile (i.e., < 1.0 SD) on the MLAT, there were no differences on measures of graduating GPA, college FL GPA, native language skill, ACT score, and Verbal IQ. Demographic findings showed that 44% of these petition students met a minimum IQ-achievement discrepancy criterion (> or = 1.0 SD) for classification as LD. These findings suggest that many traditional assumptions about LD and FL learning are likely to be false.

Dyslexia and the learning of a foreign language in school: where are we going?

The difficulties which many dyslexic students encounter in the learning of the English language often extend to the learning of a foreign language in school. Although this problem has been acknowledged for some time, and although the learning of a modern foreign language is a core element in the Scottish curriculum, there has been little research into how modern languages can be presented to offer the best learning opportunities to dyslexic students. Dyslexic students are likely to benefit from a multisensory approach to the learning of a modern foreign language, and it seems likely that they will need to utilize similar strategies to those used for learning their first language. Strategies are discussed with a view to making modern language learning more appropriate for students with difficulties in learning.

Reflections on foreign language study for students with language learning problems: research, issues and challenges

The study of foreign language (FL) learning for individuals who have found learning to read and write in their first language extremely problematic has been an under-researched area throughout the world. Since the 1980s, Leonore Ganschow and Richard Sparks have conducted pioneering research into the nature of difficulties, why they are encountered and how they can be minimized. In this paper the authors trace the development of their research on foreign language difficulties for students with language learning problems. They provide a summary of their findings and suggest new questions and directions for the field.

Teaching a foreign language using multisensory structured language techniques to at-risk learners: a review

An overview of multisensory structured language (MSL) techniques used to teach a foreign language to at-risk students is outlined. Research supporting the use of MSL techniques is reviewed. Specific activities using the MSL approach to teach the phonology/orthography, grammar and vocabulary of the foreign language as well as reading and communicative activities in the foreign language are presented.

Students classified as LD and the college foreign language requirement: replication and comparison studies

Two studies examined students classified as having learning disabilities (LD) who had received course substitutions for the college foreign language (FL) requirement. In the first study, 42 students at one university were divided into groups and compared on measures of IQ, academic achievement, FL aptitude, college grade point average (GPA), and FL and English grades. Findings showed that most of the 42 students had been classified as LD in college after experiencing problems in FL courses. Comparisons based on students' performance on measures of FL aptitude, native language skill, and performance in FL courses showed few significant group differences. In the second study, the 42 students from the first study were compared with 86 students at another university who had also been classified as LD and received course substitutions for the college FL requirement. Comparisons on demographic information and measures of IQ, academic achievement, FL aptitude, college GPA, and FL GPA showed few significant differences between the two groups. Both studies suggest that students classified as LD at different universities exhibit similar demographic, cognitive, academic achievement, and FL aptitude profiles and that educators should not make the a priori assumption that students classified as LD require course substitutions for the FL requirement or experience problems with FL learning.

The case for course substitutions as a reasonable accommodation for students with foreign language learning difficulties

It has been observed for decades that some students have a particularly difficult time learning another language. Colleges and universities have an obligation to offer special language programs designed to help these students succeed in their attempts to learn another language. However, for those few students who cannot learn another language even with special instruction, allowing them to meet the foreign language requirement though the substitution of related courses is appropriate and does not constitute a fundamental alteration of the goals of a liberal education.

Foreign language learning difficulties: an historical perspective

For 10 years, the authors of this article have examined cognitive, affective, and linguistic influences on foreign language learning. They have proposed the Linguistic Coding Differences Hypothesis (LCDH) as a model for understanding foreign language learning problems. The authors review their empirical support for the LCDH and explain the diagnostic, pedagogical, and policy implications of their research.

Foreign language proficiency of at-risk and not-at-risk learners over 2 years of foreign language instruction: a follow-up study

In this follow-up study, students at risk for problems with learning a foreign language who were taught using a multisensory, structured language approach to Spanish made significant gains over 2 years on three native language phonological/orthographic measures and a foreign language aptitude test. Despite gains, at-risk students did not "catch up" with not-at-risk students on these measures. Qualitative between-group differences were noted on foreign language proficiency measures.

An examination of youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and language learning disabilities: a clinical study

This study examined the performance of 96 youth hospitalized at an acute-care psychiatric hospital on a battery of language measures. The participants were separated into four groups: (a) participants with language learning disabilities (LLD; n = 14), (b) participants with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; n = 26), (c) participants with both ADHD and LLD (ADHD/LLD; n = 18), (d) participants with neither ADHD nor LLD (Neither; n = 38). Participants with ADHD/LLD performed significantly more poorly than did the ADHD group or the Neither group on measures of phonology and syntax, but not semantics. However, participants with ADHD/LLD did not significantly differ from participants with LLD on a majority of language-based measures. This finding suggests that participants with ADHD/LLD have profiles more similar to those of participants with LLD than participants with ADHD. Educational implications for instruction for students with ADHD/LLD are presented.

Effects of direct instruction in Spanish phonology on the native-language skills and foreign-language aptitude of at-risk foreign-language learners

This study examined the effect of an academic year of direct instruction in the phonology/orthography of Spanish on the native-language skills and foreign-language aptitude of high school women identified as at risk (n = 14) and not at risk (n = 19) for experiencing problems with learning a foreign language. At-risk students received a specialized teaching approach; not-at-risk students received traditional foreign-language instruction. Pre- and posttest results showed that both groups improved significantly on a foreign-language aptitude test, and the at-risk group made significant gains on native-language phonology/orthography measures. Pretest comparisons showed significant between-group differences on several phonological/orthographic measures and the foreign-language aptitude test. Posttest comparisons showed that the not-at-risk subjects still scored significantly higher than at-risk subjects on the foreign-language aptitude measure; no differences were noted on two native-language phonological/orthographic measures. Pre- and posttest comparisons between groups showed that the at-risk group made significantly greater gains than the not-at-risk group on phonological/orthographic measures. Implications for instruction are presented.

Examining the linguistic coding differences hypothesis to explain individual differences in foreign language learning

In this paper, it is suggested that foreign language learning problems result from difficulties with native language learning and hypothesized that difficulties with phonological processing may be the locus of foreign language learning difficulties for some poor foreign language learners. Evidence is described that supports these positions. It is argued that conceptualizing foreign language learning problems as alanguage problem allows researchers to more clearly specify deficits related to the learning of a foreign language. Research evidence which shows that good and poor foreign language learners exhibit significantly different levels of native language skill and phonological processing is summarized. Finally, potential challenges to my hypotheses as an explanation for foreign language learning problems are reviewed.

An examination of language learning disabilities in youth with psychiatric disorders

This study examined the relationship between psychiatric and language disorders in a sample of youth who were hospitalized at a private psychiatric hospital. Ninety six participants were given a test battery that consisted of tests measuring phonology, syntax, and semantics. The resulting sample scored in the average range on IQ measures and in the low-average to below-average range on written language abilities tests. Over 33% of the participants qualified for the diagnosis of a language learning disability (LLD); however, only 44% of those participants who qualified as LLD were receiving special education services upon admission. The participants who had both a psychiatric and LLD exhibited significant deficits in both phonology and syntax. General implications for identification and treatment are presented.

The effects of multisensory structured language instruction on native language and foreign language aptitude skills of at-risk high school foreign language learners: A replication and follow-up study

According to research findings, most students who experience foreign language learning problems are thought to have overt or subtle native language learning difficulties, primarily with phonological processing. A recent study by the authors showed that when a multisensory structured language approach to teaching Spanish was used with a group of at-risk high school students, the group's pre- and posttest scores on native language phonological processing, verbal memory and vocabulary, and foreign language aptitude measures significantly improved. In this replication and follow-up study, the authors compared pre- and posttest scores of a second group of students (Cohort 2) who received MSL instruction in Spanish on native language and foreign language aptitude measures. They also followed students from the first study (Cohort 1) over a second year of foreign language instruction. Findings showed that the second cohort made significant gains on three native language phonological measures and a test of foreign language aptitude. Follow-up testing on the first cohort showed that the group maintained its initial gains on all native language and foreign language aptitude measures. Implications for the authors' Linguistic Coding Deficit Hypothesis are discussed and linked with current reading research, in particular the concepts of the assumption of specificity and modularity.