Social stress, normative constraints and alcohol problems in American states

Increased anxiety, voluntary alcohol consumption and ethanol-induced place preference in mice following chronic psychosocial stress

Stress exposure is known to be a risk factor for alcohol use and anxiety disorders. Comorbid chronic stress and alcohol dependence may lead to a complicated and potentially severe treatment profile. To gain an understanding of the interaction between chronic psychosocial stress and drug exposure, we studied the effects of concomitant chronic stress exposure on alcohol reward using two-bottle choice and ethanol-conditioned place preference (CPP). The study consisted of exposure of the chronic subordinate colony (CSC) mice "intruders" to an aggressive "resident" mouse for 19 consecutive days. Control mice were single housed (SHC). Ethanol consumption using two-bottle choice paradigm and ethanol CPP acquisition was assessed at the end of this time period. As expected, CSC exposure increased anxiety-like behavior and reduced weight gain as compared to SHC controls. Importantly, in the two-bottle choice procedure, CSC mice showed higher alcohol intake than SHC. When testing their response to ethanol-induced CPP, CSC mice achieved higher preference for the ethanol-paired chamber. In fact, CSC exposure increased ethanol-CPP acquisition. Taken together, these data demonstrate the long-term consequences of chronic psychosocial stress on alcohol intake in male mice, suggesting chronic stress as a risk factor for developing alcohol consumption and/or anxiety disorders.

Stimulant alcohol effects prime within session drinking behavior

RATIONALE

Individual differences in subjective alcohol effects have been shown to differ by risk status (e.g., family history of alcoholism) and to predict future risk for alcohol-related problems. Presumably, individual differences in both stimulant and sedative responses affect the rewarding value of drinking which, in turn, impacts future drinking behavior. Although plausible, this theoretical model is largely untested.

OBJECTIVES

The current study attempted to provide experimental evidence for the impact of subjective alcohol responses on within session drinking behavior.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Using a placebo-controlled between-subjects alcohol administration paradigm, experiences and evaluations of stimulant and sedative alcohol effects (after a target dose of 0.06 g%) were assessed as predictors of ad-libitum consumption in the context of anticipatory stress.

RESULTS

Analyses indicated that an initial dose of alcohol increased experiences of both stimulation and sedation although stimulant effects were evaluated much more positively. In addition, stimulant effects after a priming dose predicted further consumption, whereas sedative effects did not.

CONCLUSIONS

At least among moderate to heavy drinking college students, stimulant alcohol effects are more reinforcing and predict within session drinking behavior under social stress. Increased attention should be given to stimulant alcohol effects as a risk factor for excessive consumption in this population. Incorporating information about stimulant alcohol effects in prevention and intervention programs may also be important if additional research supports the current results.

Trajectories and determinants of alcohol use among LGB young adults and their heterosexual peers: results from a prospective study

Lesbians, gays, and bisexuals (LGBs) are at increased risk for alcohol use during young adulthood, but the mechanisms remain inadequately understood. The aim of the present study was to examine the trajectories and determinants of alcohol use among LGB young adults who were sampled prospectively. The sample included 111 LGB individuals (47 women and 64 men) and 2,109 heterosexuals (1,279 women and 830 men), who were assessed at three time points: during the summer after their senior year of high school and during the fall and spring of their freshman year of college. Hierarchical linear modeling analyses indicated that lesbians consumed more alcohol than their heterosexual peers during high school, whereas gay men increased their alcohol use at greater rates than heterosexual men during the initial transition to college. Positive alcohol expectancies and social norms mediated this relation for both men and women. The results extend the generalizability of these processes and highlight the importance of considering normative social-cognitive influences in the development of alcohol use among LGB young adults.

Aggregate-level predictors of the prevalence of selected drinking patterns in multiple studies: a research synthesis from the Collaborative Alcohol-Related Longitudinal Project

This paper examines the prevalence of two "at-risk" alcohol drinking patterns (infrequent heavy drinking and frequent heavy drinking) within age/gender groups in multiple general population studies. When heterogeneity in findings across studies is found, we test the hypotheses that suicide, divorce, unemployment rates, and the per capita consumption of alcohol in each country are associated with the prevalence of these drinking patterns. These analyses should inform the literature on the relationships between societal factors and the prevalence of persons in different societies and periods in history that drink at these levels.

Societal-level predictors of groups' drinking patterns: a research synthesis from the Collaborative Alcohol-Related Longitudinal Project

OBJECTIVES

Period effects of per capita consumption of alcohol and divorce rates are assessed for change in quantity and frequency among age/sex groups in multiple longitudinal studies.

METHODS

Twenty-five studies of quantity and 29 studies of frequency are used. Studies are from 15 nations and cover periods of 1 to 21 years. Models predict the standardized mean difference for quantity and frequency based on period effects and group-level and methodological variables.

RESULTS

When both the period effects of per capita consumption and the divorce rate are considered, the divorce rate significantly predicts change in quantity and frequency. An increase in the divorce rate is associated with a stronger decrease in frequency among younger people; men are more likely than women to decrease their frequency of drinking when divorce rates rise.

CONCLUSIONS

Multiple societal-level factors should be considered critical in influencing the drinking patterns of groups. These results suggest that an increase in the divorce rate is associated with more "dry" social contexts, characterized possibly by drinking patterns of a more "volitive" nature (i.e., heavier quantity per occasion and less frequent drinking).

Social stress and state-to-state differences in smoking and smoking related mortality in the United States

This paper reports on the relationship between the stressfulness of the social environment, smoking and mortality rates for malignant neoplasms of the respiratory system and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). A macro-social approach was employed with the 50 states of the United States serving as the units of analysis. A 'State Stress Index' was computed using stressful events in 15 categories (divorce rate, business failures, natural disasters, etc.). Smoking behavior was measured by percentage smokers and the average cigarette sales per capita. Mortality rates for lung cancer and COPD were standardized by age. The percent population living in metropolitan areas, black, below poverty line, and with less than high school education were included as controls in the multiple regression analysis. The results show that populations that experience higher levels of stressful events smoke more heavily and eventually experience higher mortality from lung cancer and COPD. These relationships are robust: they are replicated for different time periods, for different measures of the independent and dependent variables, and with different analytic methods. The pattern of findings is consistent with a 'health behavior' model of stress in which populations under stress engage in behavior which is extremely inimical to health.

Regional differences in alcohol consumption and drinkers' attitudes toward drinking

Based on a November 1986 national probability sample of American adults aged 21 and over (1,069 of whom were deemed "drinkers" on the basis of having consumed at least one alcoholic beverage in the 7 days prior to interview), this study examines whether region of residence influences drinkers' alcohol consumption and/or their perceptions of alcohol use. In addition to examining the main effects of the relationship between geographic region of residence and alcohol use, four measures of urbanization are also investigated for their influence on drinking. Results indicate that geographic region of residence makes little to no difference in people's alcohol use and has only a small impact on their drinking-related attitudes. By and large, urbanization and gender are not influential variables in these relationships.

Stress and alcohol interaction: an update of human research

The literature on alcohol and stress in human subjects carried out since 1981 is reviewed. The review covers selected aspects of the interaction of alcohol and stress. (1) Most of the review focuses on the role of stress on alcohol ingestion. Retrospective research based on data from the Health and Nutrition Examination Survey indicated an increase in alcohol consumption with anxiety in certain groups of, as yet not well characterized, individuals. For example, although still insufficiently documented, stress does not appear to play a significant role in alcohol ingestion by women and the elderly. By contrast, stress does appear to play a role in the control of alcohol ingestion by adolescents. Prospective studies employing questionnaire-interview formats generally support an effect of stress on alcohol ingestion. However, studies employing male college aged social drinkers did not find a correlation between levels of stress and ingestion of alcohol. Alcoholics also differ in the reasons for drinking alcohol, but generally ingest alcohol to lessen anxiety/stress. It is clear that the Tension Reduction Hypothesis as originally postulated is no longer adequate. Many new models based on an interaction of alcohol and stress have been proposed to explain the control of alcohol consumption. Considering the multidimensionality of factors that appear to contribute to the control of alcohol ingestion, it is unlikely that a single model could possibly be relevant to alcohol ingestion under all conditions. More likely different models may be relevant to alcohol consumption under specific conditions, or for specific populations. (2) Alcohol has been reported to decrease anxiety in agoraphobics. The self-medication by agoraphobics may contribute significantly to their alcohol abuse. (3) Alcohol has also been reported to decrease tremor of the hands in stressed subjects as well as in patients with essential tremor. (4) Although a number of studies have employed electrodermal activity in studies aimed at the interaction of alcohol and stress, the results have been rather inconsistent. (5) The controversy on the purported beneficial effect of alcohol on the cardiovascular system persists. A number of studies have shown a J- or U-shaped relationship between alcohol ingestion and incidence of coronary heart disease. Alcohol may also influence stress-induced changes in blood pressure. Although a number of studies have demonstrated lower blood pressure in individuals ingesting less than two drinks per day compared with abstainers or heavy alcohol imbibers, the evidence is not conclusive. (6) It is not clear whether the interaction of alcohol and stress involves alterations in plasma catecholamines.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)