The fetal cardiovascular response to increased placental vascular impedance to flow determined with 4-dimensional ultrasound using spatiotemporal image correlation and virtual organ computer-aided analysis

4D imaging of fetal right ventricle-feasibility study and a review of the literature

Functional analysis of the fetal cardiovascular system is crucial for the assessment of fetal condition. Evaluation of the right ventricle with standard 2D echocardiography is challenging due to its complex geometry and irregular muscle fibers arrangement. Software package TOMTEC 4D RV-Function is an analysis tool which allows assessment of right ventricular function based on volumetric measurements and myocardial deformation. The aim of this study was to determine the feasibility of this method in fetal echocardiography. The retrospective study was conducted in the high-flow Referral Center for Fetal Cardiology. We recorded 4D echocardiographic sequences of 46 fetuses with normal hearts. Following parameters were calculated: end-diastolic volume (EDV), end-systolic volume (ESV), stroke volume (SV) and ejection fraction (EF), right ventricle longitudinal free-wall (RVLS free-wall) and septal strain (RVLS septum). Tei index was calculated as a standard measure or RV function for comparison. 4D assessment was feasible in 38 out of 46 fetuses (83%). RV volumetric parameters—EDV, ESV and SV—increased exponentially with gestational age. Functional parameters—RV Tei index, EF and strains—were independent of gestational age. Mean EF was 45.2% (± 6%), RV free-wall strain was − 21.2% and RV septal strain was − 21.5%. There was a statistically significant correlation between septal and free-wall strains (r = 0.51, p = 0.001) as well as between EF and RV free-wall strain (r = − 0.41, p = 0.011). 4D RV assessment is feasible in most fetuses. Its clinical application should be further investigated in larger prospective studies.

Fetal cardiac function by three-dimensional ultrasound using 4D-STIC and VOCAL - an update

Three- and four-dimensional (3D/4D) ultrasonography with spatio-temporal image correlation (4D-STIC) allows obtaining fetal cardiac volumes and their static and real-time analysis in multiplanar and rendering modes. Cardiac biometrics and Doppler-echocardiographic parameters for evaluation of fetal heart function, including cardiac output and stroke volume, can be analyzed using M-mode, two-dimensional (2D), and 3D/4D cardiac ultrasound. In recent years, functional echocardiography has been used to study fetuses without a structurally cardiac defect but who are at risk of heart failure due to the presence of extra-cardiac conditions, such as, fetal growth restriction, tumors/masses, twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome, fetal anemia (Rh alloimmunization), congenital infections, or maternal diabetes mellitus. The assessment of cardiac function provides important information on hemodynamic status and can help optimize the best time for delivery and reduce perinatal morbidity and mortality. Since 2003, with the advent of the 4D-STIC software, it is possible to evaluate the fetal heart in multiplanar, and rendering modes. This technology associated with virtual organ computer-aided analysis (VOCAL) enables determining the ventricular volume (end-diastole, end-systole), the stroke-volume, the ejection fraction, and the cardiac output of each ventricle. Since 2004, several studies demonstrated that the 4D-STIC and VOCAL had good reproducibility to measure cardiac volumes This study reviews published studies that evaluated the fetal cardiac function by 3D ultrasound using 4D-STIC and VOCAL software.

How to Acquire Cardiac Volumes for Sonographic Examination of the Fetal Heart: Part 2

The effective performance of fetal cardiac examination using spatiotemporal image correlation (STIC) technology requires 2 essential steps: volume acquisition and postprocessing. An important prerequisite is training sonologists to acquire high-quality volume data sets so that when analyzed, such volumes are informative. This article is part 2 of a series on 4-dimensional sonography with STIC. Part 1 focused on STIC technology and its features, the importance of operator training/experience and acquisition of high-quality STIC volumes, factors that affect STIC volume acquisition rates, and general recommendations on performing 4D sonography with STIC. In part 2, we discuss a detailed and practical stepwise approach for STIC volume acquisition, along with methods to determine whether such volumes are appropriate for analysis.

How to Acquire Cardiac Volumes for Sonographic Examination of the Fetal Heart: Part 1

Four-dimensional sonography with spatiotemporal image correlation (STIC) technology allows acquisition of a fetal cardiac volume data set and displays a cine loop of a complete single cardiac cycle in motion. Part 1 of this 2-part article reviews STIC technology and its features, the importance of operator training/experience, and acquisition of high-quality STIC volumes, as well as factors that affect STIC volume acquisition rates. We also propose a detailed and practical stepwise approach to performing 4-dimensional sonography with STIC and begin herein by providing general recommendations. Part 2 will discuss specifics of the approach, along with how to determine whether such volumes are appropriate for analysis.

Intermediate Diastolic Velocity as a Parameter of Cardiac Dysfunction in Growth-Restricted Fetuses

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the intermediate intracardiac diastolic velocities in fetuses with growth restriction.

METHODS

Doppler waveforms of the two atrioventricular valves were obtained. Peak velocities of the E (early) and A (atrial) components, and the lowest intermediate velocity (IDV) between them, were measured in 400 normally grown and in 100 growth-restricted fetuses. The prevalence of abnormal IDV, E/IDV, and A/IDV ratios in fetuses presenting with perinatal death or acidemia at birth (pH ≤7.1) was estimated.

RESULTS

IDV was significantly lower and E/IDV ratios significantly higher in the two ventricles of growth-restricted fetuses with reduced diastolic velocities in the umbilical artery (p < 0.05). In 13 fetuses presenting with perinatal death or acidemia at birth, 11 (85%) had either an E/IDV or A/IDV ratio >95th percentile, whereas 5 (38%) showed absent or reversed atrial velocities in the ductus venosus (DV-ARAV; p < 0.04). Fetuses without DV-ARAV but with elevated E/IDV ratios in either ventricle were nearly 7-fold more likely to have perinatal demise or acidemia at birth (OR 6.9, 95% CI 1.4-34) than those with E/IDV ratios <95th percentile.

CONCLUSION

The E/IDV and A/IDV ratios in the two cardiac ventricles might provide information about the risk of perinatal demise or acidemia in growth-restricted fetuses.

Fetal Intelligent Navigation Echocardiography (FINE): a novel method for rapid, simple, and automatic examination of the fetal heart

OBJECTIVE

To describe a novel method (Fetal Intelligent Navigation Echocardiography (FINE)) for visualization of standard fetal echocardiography views from volume datasets obtained with spatiotemporal image correlation (STIC) and application of 'intelligent navigation' technology.

METHODS

We developed a method to: 1) demonstrate nine cardiac diagnostic planes; and 2) spontaneously navigate the anatomy surrounding each of the nine cardiac diagnostic planes (Virtual Intelligent Sonographer Assistance (VIS-Assistance®)). The method consists of marking seven anatomical structures of the fetal heart. The following echocardiography views are then automatically generated: 1) four chamber; 2) five chamber; 3) left ventricular outflow tract; 4) short-axis view of great vessels/right ventricular outflow tract; 5) three vessels and trachea; 6) abdomen/stomach; 7) ductal arch; 8) aortic arch; and 9) superior and inferior vena cava. The FINE method was tested in a separate set of 50 STIC volumes of normal hearts (18.6-37.2 weeks of gestation), and visualization rates for fetal echocardiography views using diagnostic planes and/or VIS-Assistance® were calculated. To examine the feasibility of identifying abnormal cardiac anatomy, we tested the method in four cases with proven congenital heart defects (coarctation of aorta, tetralogy of Fallot, transposition of great vessels and pulmonary atresia with intact ventricular septum).

RESULTS

In normal cases, the FINE method was able to generate nine fetal echocardiography views using: 1) diagnostic planes in 78-100% of cases; 2) VIS-Assistance® in 98-100% of cases; and 3) a combination of diagnostic planes and/or VIS-Assistance® in 98-100% of cases. In all four abnormal cases, the FINE method demonstrated evidence of abnormal fetal cardiac anatomy.

CONCLUSIONS

The FINE method can be used to visualize nine standard fetal echocardiography views in normal hearts by applying 'intelligent navigation' technology to STIC volume datasets. This method can simplify examination of the fetal heart and reduce operator dependency. The observation of abnormal echocardiography views in the diagnostic planes and/or VIS-Assistance® should raise the index of suspicion for congenital heart disease.