Validation of a German version of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2)

Explaining the prospective paths from body appreciation to intuitive eating facets: Does body image flexibility serve as a mediator?

Initial evidence suggests that body appreciation prospectively predicts intuitive eating. However, the limited number of longitudinal studies focused solely on girls and women, with a lack of evaluation among men. Furthermore, the underlying mechanisms explaining this relationship remain poorly understood. The present study examined whether body appreciation prospectively predicted intuitive eating facets among women and men in Germany. We also tested whether adaptive affect regulation skills (i.e., body image flexibility) mediated these relationships. We analyzed data from 1436 women and 704 men across three time points: Baseline (T1), 6-month (T2), and 12-month (T3) follow-up, using latent variable path models to assess direct and indirect effects. Among women, T1 body appreciation directly predicted T3 body-food choice congruence. Additionally, body appreciation indirectly predicted unconditional permission to eat, eating for physical rather than emotional reasons, and reliance on hunger and satiety cues at T3 via its effect on T2 body image flexibility. Among men, T1 body appreciation indirectly predicted T3 eating for physical rather than emotional reasons via T2 body image flexibility. Our findings suggest that body image flexibility plays a pivotal role in explaining why individuals who appreciate their bodies are more likely to eat intuitively.

Validation and measurement invariance of a Korean version of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 in cisgender sexual minorities and heterosexual adults

The Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) has been validated in various languages across samples with different characteristics. However, its validation and invariance based on sexual orientation in Korean samples have yet to be examined. The current study validated the psychometric properties of the BAS-2 in Korean sexual minorities, and examined measurement invariance between sexual minority and heterosexual individuals and between sexual minority cisgender women and men. Responses from 449 sexual minority and 400 heterosexual individuals were analyzed. In the sexual minority sample, a confirmatory factor analysis supported the scale's unidimensional structure, exhibiting strong factorial validity; further, a correlation analysis revealed positive correlations with body satisfaction, positive sexual minority identity, life satisfaction, and self-esteem, supporting the convergent and criterion-related validity. A hierarchical regression analysis confirmed the incremental validity of the BAS-2 on life satisfaction and self-esteem. The BAS-2 was invariant across women and men at the scalar level in the sexual minority sample, and across sexual minorities and heterosexuals at the partial scalar level in the total sample. Latent mean comparisons indicated no significant differences in BAS-2 scores between sexual minority women and men, while sexual minorities scored significantly lower than heterosexuals. The multiple-indicators multiple-causes model provided evidence of differential item functioning.

The validity of the Czech version of Body Appreciation Scale-2 for adolescents

BACKGROUND

Understanding the formation of body image is critical for the prevention and treatment of eating disorders, especially in adolescence, when body image develops significantly. One of the important facets of body image is body appreciation, which consists of positive feelings and attitudes towards the body regardless of its perceived "flaws". To measure body appreciation, Body Appreciation Scale-2 (Tylka and Wood-Barcalow in Body Image 12:53-67, 2015a), a unidimensional 10-item measure, has been developed and routinely used in body image research. The current study examined the validity (i.e., factor structure, gender and age invariance, associations with other constructs) of the Czech version of Body Appreciation Scale-2 for adolescents.

METHODS

The study used two large samples of Czech adolescents, aged 13-18 (N1 = 613, M = 15.5, 52% girls; N2 = 1,530, M = 15.4, 50% girls). The data were collected in August 2021 (N1) and November 2020 (N2) through an online survey. For the data analysis, we used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (MG-CFA), and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM).

RESULTS

Our findings supported the proposed unidimensional factor structure and the gender (i.e., girls, boys) and age (i.e., 13-15, 16-18) scalar invariance of the Czech version of Body Appreciation Scale-2. The data also showed the expected positive correlations with body satisfaction and self-esteem, and negative correlations with media-ideal internalization, appearance schematicity, and depression. Furthermore, we discovered that body appreciation was more strongly connected to media-ideal internalization and depression for girls than boys.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study provided robust evidence that supports the validity of the Czech version of Body Appreciation Scale-2 and its usability for the assessment of body appreciation in Czech adolescents. We also proposed future directions for the research on body appreciation based on the explored gender differences.

Exploring the reciprocal associations between body appreciation, body image flexibility, and body acceptance by others in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany: Results from cross-lagged panel analyses among women and men

The COVID-19 pandemic provided a context associated with negative consequences for body image and eating behavior. However, little is known about what factors helped to mitigate these consequences and build a positive body image. Previous research pointed to the significance of body image flexibility and perceived body acceptance by others in predicting body appreciation. However, as most of the studies have been cross-sectional, causal relationships are poorly understood. This longitudinal study tested the reciprocal association between body appreciation, body image flexibility, and perceived body acceptance by others during the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany. We analyzed data from a large community sample consisting of 1436 women and 704 men who were invited to complete the study measures (BAS-2, BI-AAQ-5, BAOS-2) at three time points, each approximately six months apart. Latent cross-lagged panel analyses revealed that greater T1 body appreciation predicted an increase in T2 body image flexibility among both genders, while for women, we additionally observed reciprocal effects between T2 and T3. Among both genders, we further found that greater body appreciation predicted increased perceived body acceptance by others over both measurement intervals (but not vice versa). Our findings are discussed in light of pandemical constraints during the studies' assessments.

Body appreciation around the world: Measurement invariance of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) across 65 nations, 40 languages, gender identities, and age

The Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) is a widely used measure of a core facet of the positive body image construct. However, extant research concerning measurement invariance of the BAS-2 across a large number of nations remains limited. Here, we utilised the Body Image in Nature (BINS) dataset - with data collected between 2020 and 2022 - to assess measurement invariance of the BAS-2 across 65 nations, 40 languages, gender identities, and age groups. Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis indicated that full scalar invariance was upheld across all nations, languages, gender identities, and age groups, suggesting that the unidimensional BAS-2 model has widespread applicability. There were large differences across nations and languages in latent body appreciation, while differences across gender identities and age groups were negligible-to-small. Additionally, greater body appreciation was significantly associated with higher life satisfaction, being single (versus being married or in a committed relationship), and greater rurality (versus urbanicity). Across a subset of nations where nation-level data were available, greater body appreciation was also significantly associated with greater cultural distance from the United States and greater relative income inequality. These findings suggest that the BAS-2 likely captures a near-universal conceptualisation of the body appreciation construct, which should facilitate further cross-cultural research.

Body image explains differences in intuitive eating between men and women: Examining indirect effects across negative and positive body image

Intuitive eating is an adaptive and flexible form of eating. Men report higher rates of intuitive eating than women. Objectification processes are proposed to underlie this (binary) gender difference due to the intense body-related pressures that disrupt body image in women. The current study is the first known to test whether body image indirectly explains lower levels of intuitive eating in women relative to men. A cross-sectional sample of 498 adults aged 18-74 years recruited through Prolific completed an online survey assessing intuitive eating and negative and positive body image indicators. Women reported poorer body image and lower levels of intuitive eating compared to men. Significant indirect effects suggested body image explained gender differences in intuitive eating, controlling for age and body mass index. In women relative to men, greater body surveillance and lower aesthetic satisfaction explained lower total intuitive eating and reliance on hunger and satiety, greater aesthetic investment explained lower total intuitive eating and eating for physical reasons, and lower functionality investment explained lower body-food choice congruence. More research is needed, but findings suggest programs may benefit from decreasing critical views of appearance and strengthening functionality investment in women to reduce gender differences in intuitive eating.

Further evaluation of the psychometric properties of the German version of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2): Cross-validation, measurement invariance, and population-based norms

Using a representative sample of the German general population (N = 2509, 16-74 years), this work aimed to cross-validate the modified one-factor model recently reported for the German Body Appreciation Scale 2 (BAS-2). We also examined measurement invariance across gender, tested differential item functioning across age and BMI, systematically evaluated subgroup differences, and provided norms according to subgroups. Overall, the BAS-2 demonstrates good internal consistency. Cross-validation supported the generalizability of the modified one-factor model. Multi-group confirmatory factor analyses supported full scalar invariance across gender; comparisons revealed higher scores among men compared to women with a small effect size. Age (only women) and BMI (both genders) significantly predicted latent BAS-2 scores. Of note, differential item functioning for age and BMI was observed. Concerning manifest group differences, we found a significant main effect of weight status: Individuals with obesity reported the lowest body appreciation levels, while individuals with underweight/ normal weight reported highest levels. Our findings suggest that the German BAS-2 has good psychometric properties and is suitable for examining body appreciation across gender among German women and men. Moreover, norm values enable future usage of the scale in health and clinical research by providing reference data for interpretation.

Factor structure and psychometric properties of a Korean translation of the Body Appreciation Scale-2

The applicability of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) in a Korean context is still unexplored, even though awareness of the importance of a positive body image has increased in South Korea. The current study examined the factor structure and psychometric properties of a Korean translation of the BAS-2, specifically to (1) translate and culturally adapt the BAS-2 to Korea, (2) confirm its unidimensional construct, and (3) identify its associations with body image and psychological outcomes across sex with a Korean sample. Data from 839 Korean adult men (n = 415) and women (n = 424) were randomly split into two subsamples. Using the exploratory factor analysis to confirmatory factor analysis strategy, the current study showed support for one factor structure of a Korean translation of the BAS-2. Scalar measurement invariance was found between men and women. Further analyses revealed construct validity through associations with measures of muscularity and body fat dissatisfaction (for men), internalization (for women), and appearance evaluation, as well as incremental validity through hierarchical regression analyses predicting life satisfaction and self-esteem. The Korean BAS-2 presented good internal consistency and test-retest reliability. The Korean BAS-2 is a reliable and valid measure, allowing for cross-cultural comparisons of body appreciation.

Giving a Body a Different Face—How Men and Women Evaluate Their Own Body vs. That of Others

Eating disorders affect women more than men. Women reportedly dislike their body shape more and appreciate it less than do men. One factor influencing body image might be the application of different standards for oneself than for other people when evaluating bodies. To investigate this possibility, we determined whether the application of double standards is different between men and women. We presented 57 women and 54 men (aged 18–30 and of average weight) with pictures of their own bodies and pictures of average weight, overweight, and “ideal” bodies attached to the participants’ own face and to another person’s face. Participants were instructed to evaluate their emotional reaction to the pictures and then rate the various pictures on aspects of attractiveness, body fat, and muscle mass. The degree of the double standard was defined as the difference between ratings of what appeared to be one’s own body and what appeared to be someone else’s according to the presented face. The analyses revealed, firstly, that both genders applied self-deprecating double standards when viewing overweight and average-weight bodies. Women, but not men, also showed self-deprecating double standards when viewing the ideal body and their own body. By contrast, men applied fewer double standards when viewing the ideal body and self-enhancing double standards when viewing their own body. The study suggests that young, average-weight men are more or less satisfied with their own bodies, whereas young, average-weight women tend to apply a stricter standard for themselves than for others, thus devaluing their own bodies. This vulnerability to body image is hypothesized as contributing to the prevalence of eating disorders in women.