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Zhang C, Lu J. Legionella: A Promising Supplementary Indicator of Microbial Drinking Water Quality in Municipal Engineered Water Systems. Front Environ Sci 2021; 9:1-22. [PMID: 35004706 PMCID: PMC8740890 DOI: 10.3389/fenvs.2021.684319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Opportunistic pathogens (OPs) are natural inhabitants and the predominant disease causative biotic agents in municipal engineered water systems (EWSs). In EWSs, OPs occur at high frequencies and concentrations, cause drinking-water-related disease outbreaks, and are a major factor threatening public health. Therefore, the prevalence of OPs in EWSs represents microbial drinking water quality. Closely or routinely monitoring the dynamics of OPs in municipal EWSs is thus critical to ensuring drinking water quality and protecting public health. Monitoring the dynamics of conventional (fecal) indicators (e.g., total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and Escherichia coli) is the customary or even exclusive means of assessing microbial drinking water quality. However, those indicators infer only fecal contamination due to treatment (e.g., disinfection within water utilities) failure and EWS infrastructure issues (e.g., water main breaks and infiltration), whereas OPs are not contaminants in drinking water. In addition, those indicators appear in EWSs at low concentrations (often absent in well-maintained EWSs) and are uncorrelated with OPs. For instance, conventional indicators decay, while OPs regrow with increasing hydraulic residence time. As a result, conventional indicators are poor indicators of OPs (the major aspect of microbial drinking water quality) in EWSs. An additional or supplementary indicator that can well infer the prevalence of OPs in EWSs is highly needed. This systematic review argues that Legionella as a dominant OP-containing genus and natural inhabitant in EWSs is a promising candidate for such a supplementary indicator. Through comprehensively comparing the behavior (i.e., occurrence, growth and regrowth, spatiotemporal variations in concentrations, resistance to disinfectant residuals, and responses to physicochemical water quality parameters) of major OPs (e.g., Legionella especially L. pneumophila, Mycobacterium, and Pseudomonas especially P. aeruginosa), this review proves that Legionella is a promising supplementary indicator for the prevalence of OPs in EWSs while other OPs lack this indication feature. Legionella as a dominant natural inhabitant in EWSs occurs frequently, has a high concentration, and correlates with more microbial and physicochemical water quality parameters than other common OPs. Legionella and OPs in EWSs share multiple key features such as high disinfectant resistance, biofilm formation, proliferation within amoebae, and significant spatiotemporal variations in concentrations. Therefore, the presence and concentration of Legionella well indicate the presence and concentrations of OPs (especially L. pneumophila) and microbial drinking water quality in EWSs. In addition, Legionella concentration indicates the efficacies of disinfectant residuals in EWSs. Furthermore, with the development of modern Legionella quantification methods (especially quantitative polymerase chain reactions), monitoring Legionella in ESWs is becoming easier, more affordable, and less labor-intensive. Those features make Legionella a proper supplementary indicator for microbial drinking water quality (especially the prevalence of OPs) in EWSs. Water authorities may use Legionella and conventional indicators in combination to more comprehensively assess microbial drinking water quality in municipal EWSs. Future work should further explore the indication role of Legionella in EWSs and propose drinking water Legionella concentration limits that indicate serious public health effects and require enhanced treatment (e.g., booster disinfection).
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiqian Zhang
- Pegasus Technical Services, Inc., Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Jingrang Lu
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, United States
- Correspondence: Jingrang Lu,
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Pereira A, Silva AR, Melo LF. Legionella and Biofilms-Integrated Surveillance to Bridge Science and Real-Field Demands. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9061212. [PMID: 34205095 PMCID: PMC8228026 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9061212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Legionella is responsible for the life-threatening pneumonia commonly known as Legionnaires’ disease or legionellosis. Legionellosis is known to be preventable if proper measures are put into practice. Despite the efforts to improve preventive approaches, Legionella control remains one of the most challenging issues in the water treatment industry. Legionellosis incidence is on the rise and is expected to keep increasing as global challenges become a reality. This puts great emphasis on prevention, which must be grounded in strengthened Legionella management practices. Herein, an overview of field-based studies (the system as a test rig) is provided to unravel the common roots of research and the main contributions to Legionella’s understanding. The perpetuation of a water-focused monitoring approach and the importance of protozoa and biofilms will then be discussed as bottom-line questions for reliable Legionella real-field surveillance. Finally, an integrated monitoring model is proposed to study and control Legionella in water systems by combining discrete and continuous information about water and biofilm. Although the successful implementation of such a model requires a broader discussion across the scientific community and practitioners, this might be a starting point to build more consistent Legionella management strategies that can effectively mitigate legionellosis risks by reinforcing a pro-active Legionella prevention philosophy.
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Alhogail S, Chinnappan R, Alrifai M, Suaifan GARY, Bikker FJ, Kaman WE, Weber K, Cialla-May D, Popp J, Alfageeh MB, Al-Kattan K, Zourob MM. Simple and rapid peptide nanoprobe biosensor for the detection of Legionellaceae. Analyst 2021; 146:3568-3577. [PMID: 33913455 DOI: 10.1039/d1an00528f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This study demonstrates the development of a sensitive, specific, and quantitative peptide-based nanoprobe prototype assay for the detection of Legionellaceae in a simple way and in a short time. In this work, proteases present in the culture supernatants of Legionella spp. were used as a biomarker. Fluorogenic peptide substrates, specific to Legionella strains culture supernatant proteases, were identified. Peptidases produced a significant increase in the fluorescence intensity following the cleavage of the dipeptide fluorogenic substrates. The specific substrates were identified and coupled with carboxyl-terminated nano-magnetic particles (NMPs). On the other hand, the C-terminal was conjugated with the cysteine residue to covalently integrate with a gold sensing platform via the Au-S linkage. Four different sensors were fabricated from the four specific substrates, which were treated with the protesase of six different species of Legionella. In the presence of specific protease, the peptide sequence is digested and the magnetic nanobeads moved out of the gold surface, resulting in the apparence of gold color. One of the nanoprobes sensitivity detects as low as 60 CFU mL-1 of Legionella anisa, Legionella micdadei, and Fluoribacter dumoffii. The cross-reactivity of the sensors was tested using other closely associated bacterial species and no significant cross-reactivity of the sensors was found. It is envisaged that this assay could be useful for screening purposes or might be supportive for the fast and easy detection of Legionella protease activity for water monitoring purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahar Alhogail
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Science, King Saud University, Ad Diriyah district 11433, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Alfaisal University, Al Zahrawi Street, Al Maather, Al Takhassusi Rd, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Raja Chinnappan
- Alfaisal University, Al Zahrawi Street, Al Maather, Al Takhassusi Rd, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Majeda Alrifai
- Alfaisal University, Al Zahrawi Street, Al Maather, Al Takhassusi Rd, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Ghadeer A R Y Suaifan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan
| | - Floris J Bikker
- Department of Oral Biochemistry, Academic Centre for Dentistry Amsterdam, University of Amsterdam and VU University Amsterdam, Gustav Mahlerlaan 3004, 1081 LA Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wendy E Kaman
- Department of Oral Biochemistry, Academic Centre for Dentistry Amsterdam, University of Amsterdam and VU University Amsterdam, Gustav Mahlerlaan 3004, 1081 LA Amsterdam, The Netherlands and Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Erasmus Medical Center, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 CE Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Karina Weber
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Helmholtzweg 4, 07743 Jena, Germany and InfectoGnostics Research Campus Jena, Center for Applied Research, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany and Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology, Member of the Leibniz research alliance "Leibniz Health Technologies", Albert-Einstein-Straße 9, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Dana Cialla-May
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Helmholtzweg 4, 07743 Jena, Germany and InfectoGnostics Research Campus Jena, Center for Applied Research, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany and Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology, Member of the Leibniz research alliance "Leibniz Health Technologies", Albert-Einstein-Straße 9, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Jürgen Popp
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Helmholtzweg 4, 07743 Jena, Germany and InfectoGnostics Research Campus Jena, Center for Applied Research, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany and Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology, Member of the Leibniz research alliance "Leibniz Health Technologies", Albert-Einstein-Straße 9, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Mohamed B Alfageeh
- King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, King Abdullah Rd, Al Raed, Riyadh 12354, Saudi Arabia
| | - K Al-Kattan
- Alfaisal University, Al Zahrawi Street, Al Maather, Al Takhassusi Rd, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Mohammed M Zourob
- Alfaisal University, Al Zahrawi Street, Al Maather, Al Takhassusi Rd, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia. and King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, Zahrawi Street, Al Maather, Riyadh 12713, Saudi Arabia
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Cloutman-Green E, Barbosa VL, Jimenez D, Wong D, Dunn H, Needham B, Ciric L, Hartley JC. Controlling Legionella pneumophila in water systems at reduced hot water temperatures with copper and silver ionization. Am J Infect Control 2019; 47:761-766. [PMID: 30661910 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2018.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2018] [Revised: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/01/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hospital-acquired Legionnaires' disease is associated with the presence of Legionella pneumophila in hospital water systems. In the United Kingdom, the Department of Health recommends maintaining hot water temperatures >55°C and cold water temperatures <20°C at the point of delivery to prevent proliferation of L pneumophila in water systems. In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of copper and silver ionization to control L pneumophila at deliberately reduced hot water temperatures (43°C) within a newly installed water system in a new building linked to a large health care facility in the United Kingdom. METHODS One thousand, five hundred ninety-eight water samples were collected between September 2011 and June 2017. Samples were tested using accredited methods for L pneumophila, copper and silver ion levels, and total viable counts. Energy consumption and water usage data were also collected to permit carbon emission calculations. RESULTS The results of 1,598 routine samples from September 2011 to June 2017, and the recordings of temperatures at outlets in this facility, demonstrated effective (100%) L pneumophila control throughout the study period with an average hot water temperature of 42°C. The energy savings and reduction of carbon emissions were calculated to amount to 33% and 24%, respectively, compared to an equivalent temperature-controlled system. Water system management interventions were required to achieve consistently adequate levels of copper and silver across outlets. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrated that it is possible to control L pneumophila independent of temperature when copper and silver ionization is introduced into a new building in conjunction with an appropriately managed water system.
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Fuochi V, Coniglio MA, Laghi L, Rescifina A, Caruso M, Stivala A, Furneri PM. Metabolic Characterization of Supernatants Produced by Lactobacillus spp. With in vitro Anti- Legionella Activity. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1403. [PMID: 31293545 PMCID: PMC6606692 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Legionella pneumophila is an organism of public health interest for its presence in water supply systems and other humid thermal habitats. In this study, ten cell-free supernatants produced by Lactobacillus strains were evaluated for their ability to inhibit L. pneumophila strains isolated from hot tap water. Production of antimicrobial substances by Lactobacillus strains were assessed by agar well diffusion test on BCYE agar plates pre-inoculated with L. pneumophila. Cell-free supernatants (CFS) showed antimicrobial activity against all Legionella strains tested: L. rhamnosus and L. salivarius showed the highest activity. By means of a proton-based nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR) spectroscopy, we detected and quantified the Lactobacillus metabolites of these CFSs, so to gain information about which metabolic pathway was likely to be connected to the observed inhibition activity. A panel of metabolites with variations in concentration were revealed, but considerable differences among inter-species were not showed as reported in a similar work by Foschi et al. (2018). More than fifty molecules belonging mainly to the groups of amino acids, organic acids, monosaccharides, ketones, and alcohols were identified in the metabolome. Significant differences were recorded comparing the metabolites found in the supernatants of strains grown in MRS with glycerol and the same strains grown in MRS without supplements. Indeed, pathway analysis revealed that glycine, serine and threonine, pyruvate, and sulfur metabolic pathways had a higher impact when strains were grown in MRS medium with a supplement such as glycerol. Among the metabolites identified, many were amino acids, suggesting the possible presence of bacteriocins which could be linked to the anti-Legionella activity shown by cell-free supernatants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Fuochi
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences (BIOMETEC), University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Maria Anna Coniglio
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies "GF Ingrassia", University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Luca Laghi
- Centre of Foodomics, Department of Agro-Food Science and Technology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | | | - Massimo Caruso
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences (BIOMETEC), University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine (MEDCLIN), University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Aldo Stivala
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences (BIOMETEC), University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Pio Maria Furneri
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences (BIOMETEC), University of Catania, Catania, Italy
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