Neurotoxicity induced by toluene: In silico and in vivo evidences of mitochondrial dysfunction and dopaminergic neurodegeneration

Recent advances and current challenges of new approach methodologies in developmental and adult neurotoxicity testing

Adult neurotoxicity (ANT) and developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) assessments aim to understand the adverse effects and underlying mechanisms of toxicants on the human nervous system. In recent years, there has been an increasing focus on the so-called new approach methodologies (NAMs). The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), together with European and American regulatory agencies, promote the use of validated alternative test systems, but to date, guidelines for regulatory DNT and ANT assessment rely primarily on classical animal testing. Alternative methods include both non-animal approaches and test systems on non-vertebrates (e.g., nematodes) or non-mammals (e.g., fish). Therefore, this review summarizes the recent advances of NAMs focusing on ANT and DNT and highlights the potential and current critical issues for the full implementation of these methods in the future. The status of the DNT in vitro battery (DNT IVB) is also reviewed as a first step of NAMs for the assessment of neurotoxicity in the regulatory context. Critical issues such as (i) the need for test batteries and method integration (from in silico and in vitro to in vivo alternatives, e.g., zebrafish, C. elegans) requiring interdisciplinarity to manage complexity, (ii) interlaboratory transferability, and (iii) the urgent need for method validation are discussed.

Assessing the contribution of the chemical exposome to neurodegenerative disease

Over the past few decades, numerous environmental chemicals from solvents to pesticides have been suggested to be involved in the development and progression of neurodegenerative diseases. Most of the evidence has accumulated from occupational or cohort studies in humans or laboratory research in animal models, with a range of chemicals being implicated. What has been missing is a systematic approach analogous to genome-wide association studies, which have identified dozens of genes involved in Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases. Fortunately, it is now possible to study hundreds to thousands of chemical features under the exposome framework. This Perspective explores how advances in mass spectrometry make it possible to generate exposomic data to complement genomic data and thereby better understand neurodegenerative diseases.

Dopaminergic modulation by quercetin: In silico and in vivo evidence using Caenorhabditis elegans as a model

Quercetin is a flavonol widely distributed in plants and has various described biological functions. Several studies have reported on its ability to restore neuronal function in a wide variety of disease models, including animal models of neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease. Quercetin per se can act as a neuroprotector/neuromodulator, especially in diseases related to impaired dopaminergic neurotransmission. However, little is known about how quercetin interacts with the dopaminergic machinery. Here we employed the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to study this putative interaction. After observing behavioral modulation, mutant analysis and gene expression in C. elegans upon exposure to quercetin at a concentration that does not protect against MPTP, we constructed a homology-based dopamine transporter protein model to conduct a docking study. This led to suggestive evidence on how quercetin may act as a dopaminergic modulator by interacting with C. elegans' dopamine transporter and alter the nematode's exploratory behavior. Consistent with this model, quercetin controls C. elegans behavior in a way dependent on the presence of both the dopamine transporter (dat-1), which is up-regulated upon quercetin exposure, and the dopamine receptor 2 (dop-2), which appears to be mandatory for dat-1 up-regulation. Our data propose an interaction with the dopaminergic machinery that may help to establish the effects of quercetin as a neuromodulator.

Mitochondria in the Spotlight: C. elegans as a Model Organism to Evaluate Xenobiotic-Induced Dysfunction

Mitochondria play a crucial role in cellular respiration, ATP production, and the regulation of various cellular processes. Mitochondrial dysfunctions have been directly linked to pathophysiological conditions, making them a significant target of interest in toxicological research. In recent years, there has been a growing need to understand the intricate effects of xenobiotics on human health, necessitating the use of effective scientific research tools. Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), a nonpathogenic nematode, has emerged as a powerful tool for investigating toxic mechanisms and mitochondrial dysfunction. With remarkable genetic homology to mammals, C. elegans has been used in studies to elucidate the impact of contaminants and drugs on mitochondrial function. This review focuses on the effects of several toxic metals and metalloids, drugs of abuse and pesticides on mitochondria, highlighting the utility of C. elegans as a model organism to investigate mitochondrial dysfunction induced by xenobiotics. Mitochondrial structure, function, and dynamics are discussed, emphasizing their essential role in cellular viability and the regulation of processes such as autophagy, apoptosis, and calcium homeostasis. Additionally, specific toxins and toxicants, such as arsenic, cadmium, and manganese are examined in the context of their impact on mitochondrial function and the utility of C. elegans in elucidating the underlying mechanisms. Furthermore, we demonstrate the utilization of C. elegans as an experimental model providing a promising platform for investigating the intricate relationships between xenobiotics and mitochondrial dysfunction. This knowledge could contribute to the development of strategies to mitigate the adverse effects of contaminants and drugs of abuse, ultimately enhancing our understanding of these complex processes and promoting human health.

The potential role of environmental factors in modulating mitochondrial DNA epigenetic marks

Many studies implicate mitochondrial dysfunction in the development and progression of numerous chronic diseases. Mitochondria are responsible for most cellular energy production, and unlike other cytoplasmic organelles, mitochondria contain their own genome. Most research to date, through investigating mitochondrial DNA copy number, has focused on larger structural changes or alterations to the entire mitochondrial genome and their role in human disease. Using these methods, mitochondrial dysfunction has been linked to cancers, cardiovascular disease, and metabolic health. However, like the nuclear genome, the mitochondrial genome may experience epigenetic alterations, including DNA methylation that may partially explain some of the health effects of various exposures. Recently, there has been a movement to understand human health and disease within the context of the exposome, which aims to describe and quantify the entirety of all exposures people encounter throughout their lives. These include, among others, environmental pollutants, occupational exposures, heavy metals, and lifestyle and behavioral factors. In this chapter, we summarize the current research on mitochondria and human health, provide an overview of the current knowledge on mitochondrial epigenetics, and describe the experimental and epidemiologic studies that have investigated particular exposures and their relationships with mitochondrial epigenetic modifications. We conclude the chapter with suggestions for future directions in epidemiologic and experimental research that is needed to advance the growing field of mitochondrial epigenetics.

A Preliminary Assessment of Health and Safety in the Automobile Industry in Brunei Darussalam: Workers' Knowledge and Practice of Organic Solvents

Automobile industries worldwide extensively use organic solvents. Yet, limited studies have examined the health and safety of handling these solvents, which can only be assured if workers have appropriate knowledge and demonstrate safe practices. A cross-sectional study was conducted to preliminary explore the knowledge and practice among workers who are involved in handling organic solvents in the automobile industry in the largest urban district in Brunei Darussalam. Qualitative data were sourced from open-ended questions, observations, and pictorial evidence through still photographs. Quantitative analysis showed that 75% of the workers practice reading labels, 94.1% use fully covered clothes, 82.4% wear gloves, and 98.5% practice proper hand washing. Furthermore, 98.5% of workers cover container lids. The qualitative analysis illustrated that workers have general knowledge of materials containing solvents but could not identify the exact solvents, the harmful effects of the solvents, pathophysiology, and harmful effects on specific body systems. Health and safety were found to be practiced, albeit not consistently. Health and Safety Authorities in Brunei Darussalam must review and enforce specific policies on the use of organic solvents so that they can be practiced consistently and safely in the automobile industry. Cooperation and collaboration in adhering to the policies are mandatory to ensure health and safety at work.

PM2.5-mediated photochemical reaction of typical toluene in real air matrix with identification of products by isotopic tracing and FT-ICR MS

The sight into photoconversion of toluene, a ubiquitous typical pollutant, attentively by the involvement of PM2.5 in the real air environment is crucial for controlling haze pollution. Compared with the large-size PM2.5 on normal day (PM2.5-ND), the PM2.5 on haze day (PM2.5-HD) formed of small particle agglomerates featured greater oxidation capability, evidenced by the valence distribution of sulfur species. Notably, PM2.5-HD had abundant O₂^-• and •OH and participated in the photochemical reaction of toluene, giving it a greater toluene conversion with a first-order kinetic rate constant of 0.4 d^-1 on haze day than on normal day (0.2 d^-1). During the toluene photoconversion, isotopic labelling traced small molecules including benzene and newfound pentane, ethylbenzene, 1,3,8-p-menthatriene and 4-methyl-1-pentanone benzene that could be formed by methyl breakage, ring opening, fragmentation reforming and addition reaction of toluene. Given ADMET properties, 1,3,8-p-menthatriene was assigned high priority since it had poor metabolism, low excretion and severe toxicity, while benzene and 4-methyl-1-pentanone benzene should also be noticeable. FT-ICR MS results indicated that toluene could create multiple macromolecular products that are more sensitive to SOA generation in haze air matrix with broader carbon number and O/C, more oxygenated substitution with CHO/CHON occupying by 81.4%, lower DBE_average at 4.66 and higher OS_C‾ at -1.60 than normal air matrix. Accordingly, a photochemical reaction mechanism for toluene in real air atmosphere was proposed. The stronger oxidation property of PM2.5 not only facilitated toluene to generate small molecules but also boosted the conversion of intermediates to oxygenated macromolecular products, contributing to the formation of SOA.