Human health risk assessment of groundwater nitrate at a two geomorphic units transition zone in northern China

Hydrogeochemical characterization, quality assessment, and potential nitrate health risk of shallow groundwater in Dongwen River Basin, North China

Assessing groundwater geochemical formation processes and pollution circumstances is significant for sustainable watershed management. In the present study, 58 shallow groundwater samples were taken from the Dongwen River Basin (DRB) to comprehensively assess the hydrochemical sources, groundwater quality status, and potential risks of NO3- to human health. Based on the Box and Whisker plot, the cation's concentration followed the order of Ca2+  > Mg2+  > Na+  > K+, while anions' mean levels were HCO3-  > SO42-  > NO3-  > Cl-. The NO3- level in groundwater samples fluctuated between 4.2 and 301.3 mg/L, with 67.2% of samples beyond the World Health Organization (WHO) criteria (50 mg/L) for drinking. The Piper diagram indicated the hydrochemical type of groundwater and surface water were characterized as Ca·Mg-HCO3 type. Combining ionic ratio analysis with principal component analysis (PCA) results, agricultural activities contributed a significant effect on groundwater NO3-, with soil nitrogen input and manure/sewage inputs also potential sources. However, geogenic processes (e.g., carbonates and evaporite dissolution/precipitation) controlled other ion compositions in the study area. The groundwater samples with higher NO3- values were mainly found in river valley regions with intense anthropogenic activities. The entropy weight water quality index (EWQI) model identified that the groundwater quality rank ranged from excellent (70.7%) and good (25.9%) to medium (3.4%). However, the hazard quotient (HQ) used in the human health risk assessment (HHRA) model showed that above 91.38% of groundwater samples have a NO3- non-carcinogenic health risk for infants, 84.48% for children, 82.76% for females, and 72.41% for males. The findings of this study could provide a scientific basis for the rational development and usage of groundwater resources as well as for the preservation of the inhabitants' health in DRB.

Mechanism of denitrification in subsurface-dammed Ryukyu limestone aquifer, southern Okinawa Island, Japan

Denitrification crucially regulates the attenuation of groundwater nitrate and is unlikely to occur in a fast-flowing aquifer such as the Ryukyu limestone aquifer in southern Okinawa Island, Japan. However, evidences of denitrification have been observed in several wells within this region. This study analyzed environmental isotopes (δ15NNO3 and ẟ18ONO3) to derive the rationale for denitrification at this site. Additionally, the presence of two subsurface dams in the study area may influence the processes involved in nitrate attenuation. Herein, we analyzed 150 groundwater samples collected spatially and seasonally to characterize the variations in the groundwater chemistry and stable isotopes during denitrification. The values of δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 displayed a progressive trend up to +59.7 ‰ and + 21 ‰, respectively, whereas the concentrations of NO3--N decreased to 0.1 mg L-1. In several wells, the enrichment factors of δ15NNO3 ranged from -6.6 to -2.1, indicating rapid denitrification, and the δ15NNO3 to δ18ONO3 ratios varied from 1.3:1 to 2:1, confirming the occurrence of denitrification. Denitrification intensively proceeds under conditions of depleted dissolved oxygen concentrations (<2 mg L-1), sluggish groundwater flow with longer residence times, high concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (>1.2 mg L-1), and low groundwater levels during the dry season with precipitation rates of <100 mm per month (Jun-Sep). SF6 analysis indicated the exclusive occurrence of denitrification in specific wells with groundwater residence times exceeding 30 years. These wells are located in close proximity to the major NE-SW fault system in the Komesu area, where the hydraulic gradient was below 0.005. Detailed geological and lithological investigations based on borehole data revealed that subsurface dams did not cause denitrification while the major NE-SW fault system uplifted the impermeable basement rock of the Shimajiri Group, creating a lithological gap at an equivalent depth that ultimately formed a sluggish groundwater area, promoting denitrification.

Hydrogeochemical evaluation with emphasis on nitrate and fluoride in urban and rural drinking water resources in western Isfahan province, central Iran

Nitrate (NO3-) and fluoride (F-) are two major potential contaminants found in the groundwater of Iran. These contaminants are highly dangerous to humans if consumed more than the safe limit prescribed by the WHO. Therefore, in this study, the urban and rural drinking water resources of Isfahan province (central Iran) were investigated to evaluate the quality of groundwater from the perspective of NO3- and F-. The calculated saturation index (SI) shows that the majority of samples are mainly undersaturated or in equilibrium with respect to potential minerals. The most likely interpretation for undersaturation with respect to most minerals is either that the minerals are not present if they are reactive or if they are present, then they are not reactive. This study reveals that the majority of the groundwater samples belong to the Ca-Mg-HCO3 water type. Further, in this study, potential physicochemical variables have been used to calculate entropy weighted water quality index (EWQI). The EWQI reveals that the majority of the groundwater in the area is of good quality. Results show that the water chemistry in the area is largely governed by the water-rock interaction. This study based on large data sets reveals that the majority of drinking water resources are uncontaminated by F-. However, the groundwater is found to be largely contaminated by NO3-. The bivariate plot suggests that the unscientific farming practices and overuse of manures and fertilizers are largely responsible for high content of NO3-. Therefore, emphasis should be given on the cost-effective environmentally friendly fertilizers. The findings from this study will aid the governing authorities and concerned stakeholders to understand the hydrogeochemical evolution of groundwater in this region. The results will help formulate policies in the area for sustainable water supply.

Human health risks of metal contamination in Shallow Wells around waste dumpsites in Abeokuta Metropolis, Southwestern, Nigeria

Metal contamination in shallow wells through solid waste leaching is a serious environmental problem with contribution to global cancer cases. This paper evaluated the health risks of metals in shallow wells around dumpsites in the Abeokuta metropolis, Nigeria. Five dumpsites were purposively selected to sample twenty-five shallow wells. In situ and laboratory analyses for physico-chemical parameters, copper, lead, cadmium, iron, and chromium were conducted following the APHA standard procedure. Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks for oral and dermal routes were evaluated for adult males and females, children, and infants. Findings revealed that all wells were acidic (pH = 5.82-6.48), with Fe and Cd concentrations above the established limits. The wells around Obada, Obantoko, and Saje dumpsites had high EC (up to 1200 µS/cm), Cu, and Pb concentrations above the permissible limits. Non-carcinogenic risks for oral ingestion were significant for all age groups (hazard index: HI > 1), and the significance level across dumping areas increased in the order: Saje > Obantoko > Obada > Idi-aba > Lafenwa. All wells assessed in Saje and Obantoko recorded significant HI of dermal exposure for children and infants. Cancer risks were significant for all age groups (CR > 1.0E - 04), and metal contributions followed: Cd > Cr > Pb. The overall trend of significant risks for non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic via oral and dermal routes is in the order of infant > children > adult female > adult male. This suggests that groundwater users within the studied areas may experience diverse illnesses or cancer in their lifetime, particularly children and infants.

Hydrochemical evolution characteristics, controlling factors, and high nitrate hazards of shallow groundwater in a typical agricultural area of Nansi Lake Basin, North China

Anthropogenic nitrate contamination in groundwater could not be neglected, which has been a global issue threatening public health, especially in agricultural fields where fertilizers were used intensively. The present study focused on evaluating the groundwater evolution process, quality, and associated health risks from nitrate pollution in Nansi Lake Basin (NLB), a typical intensive agricultural region of North China. For this purpose, fifty-two shallow groundwater samples were collected and analyzed major chemical parameters in June 2022. The groundwater samples are found to be mainly dominated by HCO₃-Ca·Mg and SO₄·Cl-Ca·Mg types. Water-rock interactions like minerals dissolution/precipitation and ion exchange were found to be the important processes influencing hydrochemistry. Nitrate content in groundwater fluctuated from 1.9 to 750.0 mg/L (average:148.7 mg/L), with about 75% of samples surprisingly exceeding the permissible limit (50 mg/L) set by the World Health Organization (WHO). Anthropogenic activities can be classified as excessive nitrogen fertilizer application, livestock manure, and industrial/domestic sewage, coupled with irrigation return flow, which brought significant hazards to human health. The calculation results of entropy weighted water quality index (EWQI) showed that about half of groundwater samples are unfit for drinking purposes. Most importantly, 88.5%, 88.5%, 73.1%, and 71.2% of the water samples had considerable NO₃^- health risks (HQ > 1) for infants, children, females, and males, respectively. It is suggested that the groundwater should be chemical and biological denitrification for nitrate removal before being used for drinking purposes. The findings of this work can help policymakers to solve groundwater pollution problems and ensure healthy drinking water in such intensive agricultural basins and other similar regions worldwide.

Assessment of groundwater vulnerability by applying the improved DRASTIC model: a case in Guyuan City, Ningxia, China

Groundwater is the main source of production and living in most arid and semi-arid areas, and it plays an increasingly critical role in achieving local urban development. There is a serious issue regarding the contradiction between urban development and groundwater protection. In this study, we used three different models to assess the groundwater vulnerability of Guyuan City, including DRASTIC model, analytical hierarchy process-DRASTIC model (AHP-DRASTIC) and variable weight theory-DRASTIC model (VW-DRASTIC). The groundwater vulnerability index (GVI) of the study area was calculated in ArcGIS. Based on the magnitude of GVI, the groundwater vulnerability was classified into five classes: very high, high, medium, low, and very low using the natural breakpoint method, and the groundwater vulnerability map (GVM) of the study area was drawn. In order to validate the accuracy of groundwater vulnerability, the Spearman correlation coefficient was used, and the results showed that the VW-DRASTIC model performed best among the three models (ρ=0.83). The improved VW-DRASTIC model shows that the variable weight model effectively improves the accuracy of the DRASTIC model, which is more suitable for the study area. Finally, based on the results of GVM combined with the distribution of F^- and urban development planning, suggestions were proposed for further sustainable groundwater management. This study provides a scientific basis for groundwater management in Guyuan City, which can be an example for similar areas, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas.

Combined tactic of seasonal changes and ionic processes of groundwater in Tamirabarani river basin, India

This research is to develop dictated metrics using a multi-proxy approach such as spatial-temporal analysis, statistical evaluation, and hydrogeochemical analysis. We have collected 45 groundwater samples located in the Tamirabarani river basin. To evaluate the aptness of developed metrics for agriculture and domestic needs and eleven years dataset has been analyzed and compared with national and international standards BIS, ICMAR, and WHO Monitoring and all the analysis results revealed that the concentration of calcium (Ca-1679 to 4937 mg/L; and Cl ions 236 to 1126 mg/L) and chloride ions was on the higher side in locations. These higher values may be attributed to the regional point sources as untreated water disposal and off-peak sources as agriculture practices. According to the results of the principal component analysis, the post-monsoon season accounted for an 84.2% variance. The major analyzed cations and anions have been observed in the following order: Na⁺  > Ca²⁺  > Mg²⁺  > K⁺ and Cl^-  > HCO₃^-  > SO₄^2-  > NO₃^- respectively. Ca-Mg-HCO₃, Mg-Ca-Cl, Na-C1, and infused waters have been discovered in the basin region, indicating that anion and cation dominance is not prevalent. This specifies that groundwater quality in this region is significantly degraded and suffers from extensive salinity due to the urban pollutants mixed with unprotected river sites.

Health risks of shallow groundwater in the five basins of Shanxi, China: Geographical, geological and human activity roles

Rapid economic development often leads to groundwater degradation, posing health risks to those who rely on it. The groundwater discharge conditions in basins are poor. The health risk of shallow groundwater in basins needs more attentions. The health risk of shallow groundwater in the five basins of Shanxi Province, China was discussed based on the hydrochemical evolution of shallow groundwater and the water quality assessment. The results showed that arsenic (As) and chromium (Cr) in the shallow groundwater of the basins caused prominent health risks followed by fluoride (F) and nitrate (NO₃^-). The non-carcinogenic risks of As, F and NO₃- to children were higher than that to adults, and the carcinogenic risks of As and Cr were higher for adults than children. Various hydrogeochemical reactions, geological conditions, climatic factors, and human activities are closely related to groundwater health risks, and basin topography is considered as one of key factors. Water-rock interaction, dedolomitization and cation exchange are the natural processes in the evolution of groundwater hydrochemistry, while agricultural and mining activities are the anthropogenic factors causing groundwater degradation. The leaching/dilution effects of infiltration precipitation in the basin-mountain systems cause distinct temporal changes in the chemical composition and health risks of the groundwater in the basins. Differences in climate and farming practices among the basins further complicate the spatio-temporal changes. The basin-mountain system is conducive to the convergence and enrichment of water flow and solutes in the basins, which aggravates the degradation of groundwater quality. This study highlights that the combined influences of geographical and geological factors and anthropogenic activities amplify the human health risks of groundwater in the basins.

Geochemical evaluation and human health risk assessment of nitrate-contaminated groundwater in an industrial area of South India

The primary goal of this study is to evaluate the groundwater quality and conduct a non-carcinogenic risk assessment of nitrate contamination in an industrialized and high-density region of South India. A total of 40 sampling sites were identified in and around the industrial area, and samples were collected during the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. Piper and Gibbs' diagram shows that rock-water interaction, lithological characteristics and ion-exchange processes are the primary factors determining groundwater quality. The novel entropy water quality index (EWQI) indicated that 32 and 37.5% of the water in the study area were unsuitable for drinking purposes during both the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, respectively. Due to landfill leachate and modern agricultural activity, the nitrate concentration in groundwater post-monsoon had increased by 17.11%. The nitrate pollution index (NPI) value of groundwater exceeded the contaminated level by 22.77%. The non-carcinogenic human health risk assessment revealed that 35 and 40% of adult males, 37.5 and 52.5% of adult females and 42.5 and 55% of children during the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon periods were exposed to an increased concentration of nitrate in groundwater. The non-carcinogenic risk level to the exposed population in the study region descends in the following order: children >  > females > males. The study suggests that low body weight in children is a direct result of consumption of low-quality water and that adult men and women suffer less severe consequences.

Fluoride enrichment mechanisms and related health risks of groundwater in the transition zone of geomorphic units, northern China

Although groundwater is the primary drinking water source in northern of China, little is known about generation mechanisms and related health risks of high fluoride groundwater at the geomorphic transition zones. Thus, 419 groundwater samples were collected from Zhangjiakou region, where is a typically geomorphic transition zone of the North China Plain and the Inner Mongolia Plateau, to conduct the hydrochemical analysis, geochemical modeling, multivariate statistical analysis, and health risks assessment. From the results, F^- concentration in groundwater had a range of 0.05-9.71 mg L^-1. About 37.1% and 26.2% of groundwater samples from Bashang region (BSR) and Baxia region (BXR), respectively, were over the 1.50 mg L^-1, which were mainly distributed in the groundwater flow retardation area and/or evaporation discharge area. Thermodynamic simulations demonstrated that F-bearing minerals dissolution and Ca²⁺/Mg²⁺ removal via calcite/dolomite precipitation primarily governed high-F^- groundwater formation in the whole study area. Competitive adsorption, evaporation, evaporites dissolution and salt-effect also affected F^- enrichment in BSR. Desorption in alkaline environment, ion exchange and human activities played a vital role in F^- enrichment at BXR. The multivariate statistical analysis revealed that the origin of F^- contamination was geogenic in BSR; whereas, it was geogenic and anthropogenic in BXR. Besides, more than 71.8%, 51.0%, 36.1% and 25.5% of the study area exceeded the acceptable level (health index>1) for infants, children, adult males, and females, respectively. The health risks for different groups of people varied significantly and ranked: infants > children > males > females, suggesting that younger people were more susceptible to fluoride contamination. Meanwhile, females were more resistant to fluoride contamination than males. These findings are vital to providing insights on high-F^- groundwater formation, investigate the situation of health risks, and conduct the integrated management for high fluoride groundwater in geomorphic transition zones at northern China.

Quantification and health risk assessment of nitrate in southern districts of Tehran, Iran

Nitrate is a common contaminant of drinking water. Due to its adverse health effects, this study aimed to determine nitrate levels in six southern districts of Tehran. A total of 148 samples were taken from tap waters. In 84.46% (n = 125) of the samples, the nitrate concentration was below national and WHO limits (50 mg/L); however, 15.54% (n = 23) were in violation of the criteria. The total mean concentration of nitrate was 36.15 mg/L (±14.74) ranging from 4.52 to 80.83 mg/L. The overall hazard quotient (HQ) for age groups were ordered as Children (1.71) &gt; Infants (1.24) &gt; Teenagers (1.2) &gt; Adults (0.96). In all districts, the HQ values for infants and children groups were greater than 1, indicating potential adverse health risks. In teenagers age group, only the HQ estimations of districts 10 (HQ = 0.93) and 11 (HQ = 0.74) were lower than 1 and in adults age group, the estimated HQ values for districts were lower than 1 with the exception for district 19 (HQ = 1.19). The sensitivity analysis (SA) showed that nitrate content plays a major role in the value of the assessed risk.