Novel targetedly extracting lithium: An environmental-friendly controlled chlorinating technology and mechanism of spent lithium ion batteries recovery

Unveiling the lithium deintercalation mechanisms in spent lithium-ion batteries via sulfation roasting

Recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is of great importance for resource sustainability and environmental protection. This study introduced pyrite ore (FeS2) as an alternative additive to achieve the selective recovery of Li2CO3 from spent LiCoO2 (LCO) batteries. The mechanism study revealed that the sulfation reaction followed two pathways. During the initial stage (550 °C-800 °C), the decomposition and oxidation of FeS2 and the subsequent gas-solid reaction between the resulting SO2 and layered LCO play crucial roles. The sulfation of lithium occurred prior to cobalt, resulting in the disruption of layered structure of LCO and the transformation into tetragonal spinel. In the second stage (over 800 °C), the dominated reactions were the decomposition of orthorhombic cobalt sulfate and its combination with rhombohedral Fe2O3 to form CoFe2O4. The deintercalation of Li from LCO by the substitution of Fe and conversion of Co(III)/Fe(II) into Co3O4/CoFe2O4 were further confirmed by density functional theory (DFT) calculation results. This fundamental understanding of the sulfation reaction facilitated the future development of lithium extraction methods that utilized additives to substantially reduce energy consumption.

Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries for a sustainable future: recent advancements

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely used as power storage systems in electronic devices and electric vehicles (EVs). Recycling of spent LIBs is of utmost importance from various perspectives including recovery of valuable metals (mostly Co and Li) and mitigation of environmental pollution. Recycling methods such as direct recycling, pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, bio-hydrometallurgy (bioleaching) and electrometallurgy are generally used to resynthesise LIBs. These methods have their own benefits and drawbacks. This manuscript provides a critical review of recent advances in the recycling of spent LIBs, including the development of recycling processes, identification of the products obtained from recycling, and the effects of recycling methods on environmental burdens. Insights into chemical reactions, thermodynamics, kinetics, and the influence of operating parameters of each recycling technology are provided. The sustainability of recycling technologies (e.g., life cycle assessment and life cycle cost analysis) is critically evaluated. Finally, the existing challenges and future prospects are presented for further development of sustainable, highly efficient, and environmentally benign recycling of spent LIBs to contribute to the circular economy.

Alkali hydroxide (LiOH, NaOH, KOH) in water: Structural and vibrational properties, including neutron scattering results

Structural and vibrational properties of aqueous solutions of alkali hydroxides (LiOH, NaOH, and KOH) are computed using quantum molecular dynamics simulations for solute concentrations ranging between 1 and 10M. Element-resolved partial radial distribution functions, neutron and x-ray structure factors, and angular distribution functions are computed for the three hydroxide solutions as a function of concentration. The vibrational spectra and frequency-dependent conductivity are computed from the Fourier transforms of velocity autocorrelation and current autocorrelation functions. Our results for the structure are validated with the available neutron data for 17M concentration of NaOH in water [Semrouni et al., Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 21, 6828 (2019)]. We found that the larger ionic radius [rLi+ Collapse

Key Words Collapse

MESH Headings Collapse

Grants Collapse

Affiliation(s)

Ruru Ma Collaboratory for Advanced Computing and Simulations, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90007-0242, USA
Nitish Baradwaj Collaboratory for Advanced Computing and Simulations, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90007-0242, USA
Ken-Ichi Nomura Collaboratory for Advanced Computing and Simulations, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90007-0242, USA
Aravind Krishnamoorthy Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-3123, USA
Rajiv K Kalia Collaboratory for Advanced Computing and Simulations, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90007-0242, USA
Aiichiro Nakano Collaboratory for Advanced Computing and Simulations, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90007-0242, USA
Priya Vashishta Collaboratory for Advanced Computing and Simulations, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90007-0242, USA

Collapse

Selective Recovery of Battery-Grade Li2CO3 from Spent NCM Cathode Materials Using a One-Step Method of CO2 Carbonation Recovery Without Acids or Bases

The recovery of spent lithium-ion batteries by traditional acid leaching is limited by serious pollution, complicated technology, and the low purity of Li2CO3. To address the problems of the traditional acid leaching process and increasing demand for decarbonization, a technique for the selective carbonation leaching of Li and the recovery of battery-grade Li2CO3 by a simple concentration precipitation process without acids or bases was developed. The coupling of CO2 and reducing agents could effectively promote the precipitation of MCO3 (M=Ni/Co/Mn) and the selective leaching of Li by decreasing the reducing capability needed for transition metals and decreasing the pH of the solution. The optimal selective leaching process of Li was obtained under 1 MPa CO2 with 20 g/L Na2S2O3 at an L/S ratio of 30 mL/g for 1.5 h. FT-IR, XRD, ICP-MS and other methods were used to reveal the multiphase interfacial reaction mechanism of the carbonation reduction of layered cathode materials, which indicated that the reducing agent Na2S2O3 could promote lattice distortion of the cathode materials and effective separation of Li. In summary, a green and economical method for the selective recovery of battery-grade Li2CO3 using a one-step method of CO2 carbonation recovery in a near-neutral environment was proposed.

Toward Sustainable All Solid-State Li-Metal Batteries: Perspectives on Battery Technology and Recycling Processes

Lithium (Li)-based batteries are gradually evolving from the liquid to the solid state in terms of safety and energy density, where all solid-state Li-metal batteries (ASSLMBs) are considered the most promising candidates. This is demonstrated by the Bluecar electric vehicle produced by the Bolloré Group, which is utilized in car-sharing services in several cities worldwide. Despite impressive progress in the development of ASSLMBs, their avenues for recycling them remain underexplored, and combined with the current explosion of spent Li-ion batteries, they should attract widespread interest from academia and industry. Here, the potential challenges of recycling ASSLMBs as compared to Li-ion batteries are analyzed and the current progress and prospects for recycling ASSLMBs are summarized and analyzed. Drawing on the lessons learned from Li-ion battery recycling, it is important to design sustainable recycling technologies before ASSLMBs gain widespread market adoption. A battery-recycling-oriented design is also highlighted for ASSLMBs to promote the recycling rate and maximize profitability. Finally, future research directions, challenges, and prospects are outlined to provide strategies for achieving sustainable development of ASSLMBs.

Fundamentals, status and challenges of direct recycling technologies for lithium ion batteries

Advancement in energy storage technologies is closely related to social development. However, a significant conflict has arisen between the explosive growth in battery demand and resource availability. Facing the upcoming large-scale disposal problem of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), their recycling technology development has become key. Emerging direct recycling has attracted widespread attention in recent years because it aims to 'repair' the battery materials, rather than break them down and extract valuable products from their components. To achieve this goal, a profound understanding of the failure mechanisms of spent LIB electrode materials is essential. This review summarizes the failure mechanisms of LIB cathode and anode materials and the direct recycling strategies developed. We systematically explore the correlation between the failure mechanism and the required repair process to achieve efficient and even upcycling of spent LIB electrode materials. Furthermore, we systematically introduce advanced in situ characterization techniques that can be utilized for investigating direct recycling processes. We then compare different direct recycling strategies, focussing on their respective advantages and disadvantages and their applicability to different materials. It is our belief that this review will offer valuable guidelines for the design and selection of LIB direct recycling methods in future endeavors. Finally, the opportunities and challenges for the future of battery direct recycling technology are discussed, paving the way for its further development.

Evolution fate of battery chemistry during efficient discharging processing of spent lithium-ion batteries

Residual electricity in spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) may cause safety issues during their dismantling and shredding in pretreatment processes. However, the migration and transformation of pollutants generated from spent LIBs during discharging were rarely reported, which is critical for prevention of pollution risk and facilitation of discharging efficiency. Herein, this work is focused on the evolution fate of battery chemistry during discharging processing. Here, migration of metal ions inside battery, galvanic corrosion on surface of battery and chemical evolution outside battery were investigated to attain the comprehensive understanding of discharging process. Firstly, efficient and complete discharging can be achieved using 5 wt% CuSO4 as discharging medium, which mainly drive the migration of Li, instead of transition metals, from anode to cathode, resulting in enrichment of Li in cathode material. Besides, different degrees of galvanic corrosion phenomena on surface of spent LIBs can be discovered in different electrolyte solutions, involving with the corrosion of Al or Fe shells and resulting in the leakage of organic electrolytes inside battery into electrolyte solution. The detailed characterization results of the composition of solute indicate that hydroxide precipitates liberated from corroded shell and organic pollutants are their main existence states.

Recover value metals from spent lithium-ion batteries via a combination of in-situ reduction pretreatment and facile acid leaching

The pretreatment of cathode material before leaching is crucial in the spent lithium-ion battery hydro-metallurgical recycling. Here research demonstrates that in-situ reduction pretreatment could dramatically improve the leaching efficiencies for valuable metals from cathodes. Specifically, calcination under 600 °C without oxygen using alkali treated cathode can induce in-situ reduction and collapse of oxygen framework, which is ascribed to the carbon inherently contained in the sample and promote the following efficient leaching without external reductants. The leaching efficiencies of Li, Mn, Co and Ni can remarkably reach 100%, 98.13%, 97.27% and 97.37% respectively. Characterization methods, such as XRD, XPS and SEM-EDS, were employed and revealed that during in-situ reduction, high valence metals such as Ni³⁺, Co³⁺, Mn⁴⁺ can be effectively reduced to lower valence states, conducive to subsequent leaching reactions. Moreover, leaching processes of Ni, Co and Mn fit well with the film diffusion control model, and the reaction barrier is in accordance with the order of Ni, Co and Mn. In comparison, it is observed that Li was leached with higher efficiency regardless of the various pretreatments. Lastly, an integral recovery process has been proposed and economic assessment demonstrates that in-situ reduction pretreatment increases the benefit with a negligible cost increase.

Progress, Key Issues, and Future Prospects for Li-Ion Battery Recycling

The overuse and exploitation of fossil fuels has triggered the energy crisis and caused tremendous issues for the society. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), as one of the most important renewable energy storage technologies, have experienced booming progress, especially with the drastic growth of electric vehicles. To avoid massive mineral mining and the opening of new mines, battery recycling to extract valuable species from spent LIBs is essential for the development of renewable energy. Therefore, LIBs recycling needs to be widely promoted/applied and the advanced recycling technology with low energy consumption, low emission, and green reagents needs to be highlighted. In this review, the necessity for battery recycling is first discussed from several different aspects. Second, the various LIBs recycling technologies that are currently used, such as pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical methods, are summarized and evaluated. Then, based on the challenges of the above recycling methods, the authors look further forward to some of the cutting-edge recycling technologies, such as direct repair and regeneration. In addition, the authors also discuss the prospects of selected recycling strategies for next-generation LIBs such as solid-state Li-metal batteries. Finally, overall conclusions and future perspectives for the sustainability of energy storage devices are presented in the last chapter.

Advances and challenges in anode graphite recycling from spent lithium-ion batteries

Spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been one of the fast-growing and largest quantities of solid waste in the world. Spent graphite anode, accounting for 12-21 wt% of batteries, contains metals, binders, toxic, and flammable electrolytes. The efficient recovery of spent graphite is urgently needed for environmental protection and resource sustainability. Recently, more and more studies have been focused on spent graphite recycling, while the advance and challenges are rarely summarized. Hence, this study made a comprehensive review of graphite recycling including separation, regeneration, and synthesis of functional materials. Firstly, the pretreatment of graphite separation was overviewed. Then, the spent graphite regeneration methods such as leaching, pyrometallurgy, their integration processes, etc. were systematically introduced. Furthermore, the modification strategies to enhance the electrochemical performance were discussed. Subsequently, we reviewed in detail the synthesis of functional materials using spent graphite for energy and environmental applications including graphene, adsorbents, catalysts, capacitors, and graphite/polymer composites. Meanwhile, we briefly compared the economic and environmental benefits of graphite regeneration and other functional materials production. Finally, the technical bottlenecks and challenges for spent graphite recycling were summarized and some future research directions were proposed. This review contributes to spent LIBs recycling more efficiently and profitably in the future.

Effective separation and recovery of Zn, Cu, and Cr from electroplating sludge based on differential phase transformation induced by chlorinating roasting

Heavy metals in electroplating sludge (ES) are usually amorphous and easily released in the environment. Especially for the ES containing multiple heavy metals, owing to the complex composition and lack of effective disposal method, it has been storage for a long time. In order to avoid environmental pollution, effective treatment methods are very urgent and necessary. Here, chlorinating roasting method was developed to enlarge the phase difference of heavy metals to fulfill the utilization of ES containing multiple heavy metals (Zn, Cr, and Cu). When CaCl₂ was used as additive, Zn and Cu were volatilized to the gas phase, while Cr was oxidized to Cr(V)/(VI) and retained in the solid phase with readily leachable state. The recovery percentage of Zn, Cu, and Cr can reach 99%, 98%, and 96% respectively by chlorinating roasting for 4 h at 1000 °C with the CaCl₂ addition proportion of 100%. After further extraction and purification, the purity of Cr and Zn can reach 92% and 99% respectively. Moreover, the mechanism of the differential phase transformation induced by chlorinating roasting was analyzed by the method of thermodynamics and kinetics. The kinetic reaction equation of the ZnCl₂ and CuCl₂ volatilization process can be described by phase boundary reaction and the function is G(α) = 1-(1-α)^1/3. This work provides a simple and effective method for the treatment of ES containing multiple heavy metals.

An overview of global power lithium-ion batteries and associated critical metal recycling

The rapid development of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in emerging markets is pouring huge reserves into, and triggering broad interest in the battery sector, as the popularity of electric vehicles (EVs)is driving the explosive growth of EV LIBs. These mounting demands are posing severe challenges to the supply of raw materials for LIBs and producing an enormous quantity of spent LIBs, bringing difficulties in the areas of resource allocation and environmental protection. This review article presents an overview of the global situation of power LIBs, aiming at different methods to treat spent power LIBs and their associated metals. We provide a critical review of power LIB supply chain, industrial development, waste treatment strategies and recycling, etc. Power LIBs will form the largest proportion of the battery industry in the next decade. The analysis of the sustainable supply of critical metal materials is emphasized, as recycling metal materials can alleviate the tight supply chain of power LIBs. The existing significant recycling practices that have been recognized as economically beneficial can promote metal closed-loop recycling. Scientific thinking needs to innovate sustainable and cost-effective recycling technologies to protect the environment because of the chemicals contained in power LIBs.

Product control and a study of the structural change process during the recycling of lithium-ion batteries based on the carbothermic reduction method

Carbothermal reduction to recover lithium-ion batteries is an environmentally friendly recycling method. This work provides a theoretical analysis of the thermodynamics and an experimental verification process for the carbon thermal reduction recovery of lithium cobaltate (LiCoO2), as well as an explanation of the microstructural changes. The reaction conditions are controlled to obtain the ideal recovery product. A thermodynamic graph of the possible reaction between LiCoO2 and graphite (C) and the reduction of cobalt oxide (CoO, Co2O3, Co3O4) by carbon monoxide (CO) is obtained by thermodynamic analysis. The feasibility of the carbothermic reduction reaction of LiCoO2 at high temperature is studied under standard atmospheric pressure. By controlling the reaction temperature (800 °C) and the ratio of the reactants (LiCoO2/C = 4:5), the reduction products cobalt monoxide (CoO) and lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) are obtained, and the recovery rates are 89% and 84%, respectively. From the perspective of the crystal structure, the reduction process of LiCoO2 is analyzed. The Li-O bond in the LiCoO2 crystal structure is destroyed by CO, which promotes destruction of the Li-O octahedral structure and the formation of a Co-O octahedron. The Li-O octahedron is transformed into a tetrahedral structure in Li2O, and Li2O then reacts with CO2 to form Li2CO3; the Co-O octahedrons combine to form a CoO crystal structure. When the temperature continues to rise, CoO is reduced to Co. The carbothermic reduction recovery method does not require any additional hazardous chemicals and can avoid secondary pollution during the recovery process. This research provides theoretical support for the industrial recycling of lithium-ion batteries.

The immediate effects of winter storms and power outages on multiple health outcomes and the time windows of vulnerability

BACKGROUND

While most prior research has focused on extreme heat, few assessed the immediate health effects of winter storms and associated power outages (PO), although severe storms have become more frequent. This study evaluates the joint and independent health effects of winter storms and PO, snow versus ice-storm, effects by time window (peak timing, winter/transitional months) and the impacts on critical care indicators including numbers of comorbidity, procedure, length of stay and cost.

METHODS

We use distributed lag nonlinear models to assess the impacts of winter storm/PO on hospitalizations due to cardiovascular, lower respiratory diseases (LRD), respiratory infections, food/water-borne diseases (FWBD) and injuries in New York State on 0-6 lag days following storm/PO compared with non-storm/non-PO periods (references), while controlling for time-varying factors and PM2.5. The storm-related hospitalizations are described by time window. We also calculate changes in critical care indicators between the storm/PO and control periods.

RESULTS

We found the joint effects of storm/PO are the strongest (risk ratios (RR) range: 1.01-1.90), followed by that of storm alone (1.02-1.39), but not during PO alone. Ice storms have stronger impacts (RRs: 1.04-3.15) than snowstorms (RRs: 1.03-2.21). The storm/PO-health associations, which occur immediately, and some last a whole week, are stronger in FWBD, October/November, and peak between 3:00-8:00 p.m. Comorbidity and medical costs significantly increase after storm/PO.

CONCLUSION

Winter storms increase multiple diseases, comorbidity and medical costs, especially when accompanied by PO or ice storms. Early warnings and prevention may be critical in the transitional months and afternoon rush hours.

Study of reaction characteristics and controlling mechanism of chlorinating conversion of cathode materials from spent lithium-ion batteries

Spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) recycling has attracted much attention because it is highly favorable to environment protection and sustainable development. Developing a cleaner method for metals extraction can greatly reduce risk of secondary pollution. Chlorinating technology has been proved as an efficient method for metals extraction instead of traditional hydrometallurgy. In this paper, cathode materials from spent LIBs could be rapidly converted into metal chlorides by NH₄Cl roasting at 623 K for 20 min. The results indicated nearly 100% metal leaching rates were achieved. Further, in-depth study is performed to obtain the mechanism function of chlorinating conversion based on roasting and TGA experiments. The apparent activation energy as 73.40 kJ/mol was firstly obtained, and then the reaction model of chlorination reaction was determined by model fitting and verifying. Herein, sub-reactions of chlorination reaction were figured out and their contributions were used to determinate reaction controlling mechanisms of chlorination reaction. The results indicated that nucleation reaction played a leading role in the initial stage (0.05 <α < 0.43) while phase boundary reaction took the control in next stage (0.43 <α < 0.95), which gave a good explanation to activation energy change. Finally, our findings provided inspirations for studying the controlling mechanism of gas-solid reaction.