TRIM59 promotes gefitinib resistance in EGFR mutant lung adenocarcinoma cells

Tripartite motif family - its role in tumor progression and therapy resistance: a review

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

In this review, we summarized published articles on the role of tripartite motif (TRIM) family members in the initiation and development of human malignancies.

RECENT FINDINGS

The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UP-S) plays a critical role in cellular activities, and UP-S dysregulation contributes to tumorigenesis. One of the key regulators of the UP-S is the tripartite motif TRIM protein family, most of which are active E3 ubiquitin ligases. TRIM proteins are critical for the biological functions of cancer cells, including migration, invasion, metastasis, and therapy resistance. Therefore, it is important to understand how TRIM proteins function at the molecular level in cancer cells.

SUMMARY

We provide a comprehensive and up-to-date overview about the role TRIMs play in cancer progression and therapy resistance. We propose TRIM family members as potential new markers and targets to overcome therapy failure.

Intricate confrontation: Research progress and application potential of TRIM family proteins in tumor immune escape

BACKGROUND

Tripartite motif (TRIM) family proteins have more than 80 members and are widely found in various eukaryotic cells. Most TRIM family proteins participate in the ubiquitin-proteasome degradation system as E3-ubiquitin ligases; therefore, they play pivotal regulatory roles in the occurrence and development of tumors, including tumor immune escape. Due to the diversity of functional domains of TRIM family proteins, they can extensively participate in multiple signaling pathways of tumor immune escape through different substrates. In current research and clinical contexts, immune escape has become an urgent problem. The extensive participation of TRIM family proteins in curing tumors or preventing postoperative recurrence and metastasis makes them promising targets.

AIM OF REVIEW

The aim of the review is to make up for the gap in the current research on TRIM family proteins and tumor immune escape and propose future development directions according to the current progress and problems.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

This up-to-date review summarizes the characteristics and biological functions of TRIM family proteins, discusses the mechanisms of TRIM family proteins involved in tumor immune escape, and highlights the specific mechanism from the level of structure-function-molecule-pathway-phenotype, including mechanisms at the level of protein domains and functions, at the level of molecules and signaling pathways, and at the level of cells and microenvironments. We also discuss the application potential of TRIM family proteins in tumor immunotherapy, such as possible treatment strategies for combination targeting TRIM family protein drugs and checkpoint inhibitors for improving cancer treatment.

A role of TRIM59 in pulmonary hypertension: modulating the protein ubiquitylation modification

BACKGROUND

Pulmonary hypertension (PH), an infrequent disease, is characterized by excessive pulmonary vascular remodeling and proliferation of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs). However, its underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. Uncovering its molecular mechanisms will be beneficial to the treatment of PH.

METHODS

Differently expressed genes (DEGs) in the lung tissues of PH patients were analyzed with a GEO dataset GSE113439. From these DEGs, we focused on TRIM59 which was highly expressed in PH patients. Subsequently, the expression of TRIM59 in the pulmonary arteries of PH patients, lung tissues of PH rat model and PASMCs cultured in a hypoxic condition was verified by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR), western blot and immunohistochemistry. Furthermore, the role of TRIM59 in PAMSC proliferation and pathological changes in PH rats was assessed via gain-of-function and loss-of-function experiments. In addition, the transcriptional regulation of YAP1/TEAD4 on TRIM59 was confirmed by qPCR, western blot, luciferase reporter assay, ChIP and DNA pull-down. In order to uncover the underlying mechanisms of TRIM59, a protein ubiquitomics and a CoIP- HPLC-MS/MS were companied to identify the direct targets of TRIM59.

RESULTS

TRIM59 was highly expressed in the pulmonary arteries of PH patients and lung tissues of PH rats. Over-expression of TRIM59 accelerated the proliferation of PASMCs, while TRIM59 silencing resulted in the opposite results. Moreover, TRIM59 silencing mitigated the injuries in heart and lung and attenuated pulmonary vascular remodeling during PH. In addition, its transcription was positively regulated by YAP1/TEAD4. Then we further explored the underlying mechanisms of TRIM59 and found that TRIM59 overexpression resulted in an altered ubiquitylation of proteins. Accompanied with the results of CoIP- HPLC-MS/MS, 34 proteins were identified as the direct targets of TRIM59.

CONCLUSION

TRIM59 was highly expressed in PH patients and promoted the proliferation of PASMCs and pulmonary vascular remodeling, thus contributing to the pathogenesis of PH. It is indicated that TRIM59 may become a potential target for PH treatment.

Ursolic Acid Analogs as Potential Therapeutics for Cancer

Ursolic acid (UA) is a pentacyclic triterpene isolated from a large variety of vegetables, fruits and many traditional medicinal plants. It is a structural isomer of Oleanolic Acid. The medicinal application of UA has been explored extensively over the last two decades. The diverse pharmacological properties of UA include anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-proliferative, etc. Especially, UA holds a promising position, potentially, as a cancer preventive and therapeutic agent due to its relatively non-toxic properties against normal cells but its antioxidant and antiproliferative activities against cancer cells. Cell culture studies have shown interference of UA with multiple pharmacological and molecular targets that play a critical role in many cells signaling pathways. Although UA is considered a privileged natural product, its clinical applications are limited due to its low absorption through the gastro-intestinal track and rapid elimination. The low bioavailability of UA limits its use as a therapeutic drug. To overcome these drawbacks and utilize the importance of the scaffold, many researchers have been engaged in designing and developing synthetic analogs of UA via structural modifications. This present review summarizes the synthetic UA analogs and their cytotoxic antiproliferative properties reported in the last two decades.

Long non-coding RNA prostate cancer-associated transcript 6 inhibited gefitinib sensitivity of non-small cell lung cancer by serving as a competing endogenous RNA of miR-326 to up-regulate interferon-alpha receptor 2

The critical roles of lncRNAs in drug resistance of malignancies have been widely recognized. This investigation aims to study the function of lncRNA PCAT6 in the resistance of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) to gefitinib. In our study, we demonstrated that prostate cancer-associated transcript 6 (PCAT6) was upregulated in gefitinib-resistant NSCLC. PCAT6 knockdown inhibited gefitinib resistance of NSCLC, as indicated by decreased IC₅₀ value, proliferation, and metastasis, and increased cell apoptosis. Besides, PCAT6 could directly target miR-326 in gefitinib-resistant NSCLC cells and augment NSCLC resistance to gefitinib by serving as ceRNA of miR-326. Furthermore, interferon-alpha receptor 2 (IFNAR2) was validated as a downstream target of miR-326 and miR-326 reduced resistance to gefitinib by inhibiting IFNAR2 expression. Our investigation identified that PCAT6 enhanced gefitinib resistance of NSCLC via miR-326/IFNAR2 axis, which might offer a new therapeutic strategy against gefitinib resistance of NSCLC patients.

STAT3 inhibitor BBI608 enhances the antitumor effect of gefitinib on EGFR-mutated non-small cell lung cancer cells

Gefitinib is known as epidermal growth factor receptor-tyrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR-TKI) while an increasing number of patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) are becoming resistant to EGFR-TKI. Therefore, innovative methods are urgently needed to overcome primary and acquired resistance to EGFR-TKIs in NSCLC patients. The viability of HCC827 cells and HCC827 Ge-resistant (Ge-r) cells treated with gefitinib and/or STAT3 inhibitor and/or Overexpression (Oe)-ROR1 was detected by CCK-8 assay. The colony formation, invasion, migration and apoptosis of HCC827 Ge-r cells treated with gefitinib and/or STAT3 inhibitor and/or Oe-ROR1 transfection were, respectively, detected by clone formation assay, transwell assay, wound healing assay and flow cytometry analysis. The protein expressions of EGFR, STAT3, invasion and migration-related proteins, ROR1/ABCB1/P53 pathway and apoptosis-related proteins were analyzed by Western blot analysis. The transfection effect of Oe-ROR1 in HCC827 Ge-r cells was confirmed by qRT-PCR and Western blot analysis. In vivo animal experiment was used to confirm the role of STAT3 in improving the sensitivity of HCC827 Ge-r cells to gefitinib. As a result, after treatment of gefitinib, the viability of HCC827 cells was lower than that of HCC827 Ge-r cells and the expression of p/t-EGFR and p/t-STAT3 was decreased in HCC827 cells and HCC827 Ge-r cells after treatment of gefitinib. STAT3 inhibitor BBI608 enhanced the ability of gefitinib to inhibit viability, invasion and migration while promoting apoptosis of HCC827 Ge-r cells treated with gefitinib, which was partially reversed by ROR1 overexpression. STAT3 inhibitor further down-regulated the expression of MMP2, MMP9, ROR1, ABCB1 and BCl2, while up-regulated the expression of p53, bax and cleaved caspase3 in HCC827 Ge-r cells treated with gefitinib, which was partially reversed by ROR1 overexpression. In vivo experiment, STAT3 inhibitor further suppressed the size of NSCLC tissues, and further down-regulated the expression of ROR1 and ABCB1 while up-regulated the expression of p53 in NSCLC tissues. In conclusion, STAT3 inhibitor enhanced the antitumor effect of gefitinib on EGFR-mutated NSCLC cells through regulating ROR1/ABCB1/P53 pathway.

Discovery of Small Molecule Bak Activator for Lung Cancer Therapy

Rationale: Bak is a major proapoptotic Bcl2 family member and a required molecule for apoptotic cell death. High levels of endogenous Bak were observed in both small cell lung cancer (SCLC) and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines. Increased Bak expression was correlated with poor prognosis of NSCLC patients, suggesting that Bak protein is an attractive target for lung cancer therapy. The BH3 domain functions as death domain and is required for Bak to initiate apoptotic cell death. Thus, the BH3 domain is attractive target for discovery of Bak agonist.

Methods: The BH3 death domain binding pocket (aa75-88) of Bak was chosen as a docking site for screening of small molecule Bak activators using the UCSF DOCK 6.1 program suite and the NCI chemical library (300,000 small molecules) database. The top 500 compounds determined to have the highest affinity for the BH3 domain were obtained from the NCI and tested for cytotoxicity for further screening. We identified a small molecule Bak activator BKA-073 as the lead compound. The binding affinity of BKA-073 with Bak protein was analyzed by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) assay. BKA-073-mediated Bak activation via oligomerization was analyzed by a cross-linking with Bis (maleimido) hexane (BMH). Sensitivity of BKA-073 to lung cancer cells in vitro was evaluated by dynamic BH3 profiling (DBP) and apoptotic cell death assay. The potency of BKA-073 alone or in combination with radiotherapy or Bcl2 inhibitor was evaluated in animal models.

Results: We found that BKA-073 binds Bak at BH3 domain with high affinity and selectivity. BKA-073/Bak binding promotes Bak oligomerization and mitochondrial priming that activates its proapoptotic function. BKA-073 potently suppresses tumor growth without significant normal tissue toxicity in small cell lung cancer (SCLC) and NSCLC xenografts, patient-derived xenografts, and genetically engineered mouse models of mutant KRAS-driven cancer. Bak accumulates in radioresistant lung cancer cells and BKA-073 reverses radioresistance. Combination of BKA-073 with Bcl-2 inhibitor venetoclax exhibits strong synergy against lung cancer in vivo.

Conclusions: Development of small molecule Bak activator may provide a new class of anticancer agents to treat lung cancer.

Bortezomib induces methylation changes in neuroblastoma cells that appear to play a significant role in resistance development to this compound

The anticancer activity of bortezomib (BTZ) has been increasingly studied in a number of indications and promising results for the use of this treatment have been shown in neuroblastoma. As BTZ treatment is usually administered in cycles, the development of resistance and side effects in patients undergoing therapy with BTZ remains a major challenge for the clinical usage of this compound. Common resistance development also means that certain cells are able to survive BTZ treatment and bypass molecular mechanisms that render BTZ anticancer activity. We studied the methylome of neuroblastoma cells that survived BTZ treatment. Our results indicate that BTZ induces pronounced genome wide methylation changes in cells which recovered from the treatment. Functional analyses of identified methylation changes demonstrated they were involved in key cancer pathology pathways. These changes may allow the cells to bypass the primary anticancer activity of BTZ and develop a treatment resistant and proliferative phenotype. To study whether cells surviving BTZ treatment acquire a proliferative phenotype, we repeatedly treated cells which recovered from the first round of BTZ treatment. The repetitive treatment led to induction of the extraordinary proliferative potential of the cells, that increased with subsequent treatments. As we did not observe similar effects in cells that survived treatment with lenalidomide, and non-treated cells cultured under the same experimental conditions, this phenomenon seems to be BTZ specific. Overall, our results indicate that methylation changes may play major role in the development of BTZ resistance.

The translational values of TRIM family in pan-cancers: From functions and mechanisms to clinics

Cancer is the second leading cause of human death across the world. Tripartite motif (TRIM) family, with E3 ubiquitin ligase activities in majority of its members, is reported to be involved in multiple cellular processes and signaling pathways. TRIM proteins have critical effects in the regulation of biological behaviors of cancer cells. Here, we discussed the current understanding of the molecular mechanism of TRIM proteins regulation of cancer cells. We also comprehensively reviewed published studies on TRIM family members as oncogenes or tumor suppressors in the oncogenesis, development, and progression of a variety of types of human cancers. Finally, we highlighted that certain TRIM family members are potential molecular biomarkers for cancer diagnosis and prognosis, and potential therapeutic targets.

Blockade of TRIM59 enhances esophageal cancer cell chemosensitivity to cisplatin by upregulating p53

Human esophageal cancer (hESC) cell motility adopts various modes, resulting in hESC progression and poor survival. However, how tripartite motif 59 (TRIM59), as the ubiquitination machinery, participates in hESC metastasis is not completely understood. The results indicated that TRIM59 was aberrantly upregulated in hESC tissues compared with adjacent healthy esophageal tissues, which was associated with poor survival and advanced TNM state among patients with hESC. Moreover, patients with hESC with higher TRIM59 expression displayed undetectable p53 expression, which contributed to enhanced progression and motility of hESC. At the molecular level, TRIM59 was indicated to be an E3 putative ubiquitin ligase that targeted the p53 protein, leading to increased degradation of p53, which resulted in decreased chemosensitivity to cisplatin. TRIM59 knockdown reduced TRIM59 expression, increased p53 protein expression, and decreased hESC cell viability, clone formation and migration compared with the small interfering RNA negative control (siNC) group. Furthermore, hESC cell lines were more sensitive to cisplatin in the TRIM59-knockdown group compared with the siNC group. The results indicated a relationship between TRIM59, p53 and the chemosensitivity of cisplatin. The present study suggested that TRIM59 may serve as a promising prognostic indicator for patients with hESC.

EEF1A2 and ERN2 could potentially discriminate metastatic status of mediastinal lymph node in lung adenocarcinomas harboring EGFR 19Del/L858R mutations

Background

Early data has indicated that EGFR 19Del mutation and EGFR L585R mutation are two different types of non‐small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, how the different molecular mechanisms participate in the process of mediastinal lymph node metastasis (MLNM) in lung adenocarcinoma (LA) harboring EGFR 19Del and EGFR L858R mutation remains unknown. We thus explored the genes responsible for MLNM in LA with EGFR 19Del or L858R mutation.

Methods

We performed transcriptome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis from 10 patients with LA resection specimens of primary tumors. Quantitative reverse transcription‐polymerase chain reaction was used to validate gene expressions.

Results

There were 69 mRNAs upregulated and 100 mRNAs downregulated in five samples with MLNM compared with samples without MLN metastasis. EEF1A2 and ERN2 were observed exhibiting different expression patterns in EGFR 19Del and EGFR L858R samples with MLNM. In samples harboring EGFR 19Del mutation, the expression of EEF1A2 gene in samples with MLNM was significantly lower compared with samples without MLN metastasis, and in samples with EGFR L858R, it was significantly higher in samples with MLNM. The expression pattern of ERN2 was opposite to EEF1A2. In addition, several other genes including SLC6A11, IGHV3‐48, IGHV3‐43, DUSP9, and HOXA9 were also shown to be associated with invasion and metastasis and exhibited an expression pattern similar to EEF1A2 and ERN2 in EGRF 19Del and L858R mutation tumors.

Conclusions

EEF1A2 and ERN2 were for the first time observed exhibiting distinct expression patterns in MLNM in lung adenocarcinomas harboring EGFR 19Del and EGFR L858R mutation by interindividual DEGs analysis.

Key points

Significant findings of the study

In our study, we focused on the mechanisms of metastasis and invasion that different EGFR mutations conferred and identified two critical genes separately involved in this process in EGFR 19Del and L858R mutation tumors.

What this study adds

Our findings not only reinforced theoretical foundations that the EGFR 19Del and L858R mutation tumors should be considered as two kinds of diseases, but also laid the fundamentals for precise determination of the mediastinal lymph node radiation field and improvement of clinical outcome.

Hsa-miR-4271 downregulates the expression of constitutive androstane receptor and enhances in vivo the sensitivity of non-small cell lung cancer to gefitinib

The efficacy of molecular targeting agents is dependent on the metabolism or nuclear receptor-mediated clearance of chemotherapy resistance-related factors such as cytochrome P450 (CYP) or ATP binding cassette subfamily B member 1 (ABCB1). In this study, we revealed the roles of the microRNA-4271/CAR (constitutive androstane receptor) axis in the regulation of the resistance to molecular anticancer targeting agents in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells including two main categories of NSCLC: lung adenocarcinoma (AC) and large cell lung cancer (LCC). The expression of miR-4271 was negatively correlated with CAR expression in NSCLC tissues. MiR-4271 targeted CAR and inhibited the activation of the CAR signaling pathway. Overexpression of CAR in NSCLC enhanced the resistance of NSCLC cells to molecular targeting agents and miR-4271-infected NSCLC cells enhanced their sensitivity to molecular targeting agents such as Gefitinib. The mechanism-data showed that overexpression of miR-4271 decelerated the mechanism or the clearance of molecular targeting agents by targeting the 3'UTR (3' un-translation region). These results suggest that miR-4271 may contribute to the development of more effective strategies for the treatment of advanced NSCLC.

Tripartite motif containing 59 (TRIM59) promotes esophageal cancer progression via promoting MST4 expression and ERK pathway

Objective: To detect the expression of tripartite motif containing 59 (TRIM59) in human esophageal cancer (EC) tissues and explore whether TRIM59 could affect the progression of EC.Methods: Quantitative PCR and immunohistochemistry assays were performed to detect the expression of TRIM59 in 40 human EC tissues and corresponding non-tumor tissues. The correlations between TRIM59 expression and clinical pathological features of patients with EC were also investigated. CCK-8, colony formation, wound closure, and transwell assays were performed to detect the effects of TRIM59 on EC cells in vitro., Immunoblotting assays were performed to detect the effects of TRIM59 on the expression of mammalian sterile-20-like kinase 4 (MST4) and ERK pathway.Results: We reported increased expression of TRIM59 in human EC tissues, and its expression was correlated with clinical features, including metastasis (p = .011*) and maximum diameter (p = .027*), in patients with EC. We further found that TRIM59 contributed to the proliferation and invasion of EC cells via regulating mammalian sterile-20-like kinase 4 (MST4) expression and ERK pathway.Conclusion: Our data confirmed the involvement of TRIM59 in EC progression and proposed that TRIM59 could serve as a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of EC.

A novel oncogene TRIM63 promotes cell proliferation and migration via activating Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in breast cancer

The development of breast cancer is still a relatively unclear biological process, and there is currently no consensus on the occurrence of breast cancer and the process of tumor metastases. This study was to reveal a correlation between TRIM63 and the development of breast cancer. In this study, we found that the expression of TRIM63 was significantly increased in breast cancer tissues and closely related to pathological differentiation and TNM stage of breast cancer. Overexpression of TRIM63 could significantly promote proliferation and migration of breast cancer cells, while TRIM63 knockdown significantly inhibited the proliferation and migration of breast cancer cells. In addition, TRIM63 could activate Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in breast cancer cells. Further study found that TRIM63 could regulate β-catenin degradation by promoting GSK3β phosphorylation. Our study revealed that TRIM63, as an oncogene, involved in breast cancer progression by activating the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, suggesting that the potential applicability of TRIM63 as a target for breast cancer treatment.