Monomethyl ethers of 4,5-dihydroxypipecolic acid from Petaladenium urceoliferum: Enigmatic chemistry of an enigmatic legume

l-lysine metabolism to N-hydroxypipecolic acid: an integral immune-activating pathway in plants

l-lysine catabolic routes in plants include the saccharopine pathway to α-aminoadipate and decarboxylation of lysine to cadaverine. The current review will cover a third l-lysine metabolic pathway having a major role in plant systemic acquired resistance (SAR) to pathogen infection that was recently discovered in Arabidopsis thaliana. In this pathway, the aminotransferase AGD2-like defense response protein (ALD1) α-transaminates l-lysine and generates cyclic dehydropipecolic (DP) intermediates that are subsequently reduced to pipecolic acid (Pip) by the reductase SAR-deficient 4 (SARD4). l-pipecolic acid, which occurs ubiquitously in the plant kingdom, is further N-hydroxylated to the systemic acquired resistance (SAR)-activating metabolite N-hydroxypipecolic acid (NHP) by flavin-dependent monooxygenase1 (FMO1). N-hydroxypipecolic acid induces the expression of a set of major plant immune genes to enhance defense readiness, amplifies resistance responses, acts synergistically with the defense hormone salicylic acid, promotes the hypersensitive cell death response and primes plants for effective immune mobilization in cases of future pathogen challenge. This pathogen-inducible NHP biosynthetic pathway is activated at the transcriptional level and involves feedback amplification. Apart from FMO1, some cytochrome P450 monooxygenases involved in secondary metabolism catalyze N-hydroxylation reactions in plants. In specific taxa, pipecolic acid might also serve as a precursor in the biosynthesis of specialized natural products, leading to C-hydroxylated and otherwise modified piperidine derivatives, including indolizidine alkaloids. Finally, we show that NHP is glycosylated in Arabidopsis to form a hexose-conjugate, and then discuss open questions in Pip/NHP-related research.

Flowers of the early-branching papilionoid legume Petaladenium urceoliferum display unique morphological and ontogenetic features

PREMISE OF THE STUDY

Floral development can help to shed light on puzzling features across flowering plants. The enigmatic Amazonian monospecific genus Petaladenium of the legume family (Leguminosae) had rarely been collected and only recently became available for ontogenetic studies. The fimbriate-glandular wing petals of P. urceoliferum are unique among the more than 19000 legume species. Ontogenetic data illuminate the systematic position of the genus and foster our understanding on floral evolution during the early diversification of the papilionoid legumes.

METHODS

Flower buds were collected in the field, fixed in 70% ethanol, and investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Results were compared with existing material from early-diverging papilionoid legumes.

KEY RESULTS

Formation of sepals and petals shows bidirectional tendencies. Stamens arise in two whorls, and the single carpel arises concomitantly with the outer stamen whorl. Gland formation starts early on the edges of the wing petals. The carpel reopens for a short time when the initiation of ovules is visible. Stomata at the base of the hypanthium indicate that the flower functions like other standard flag blossoms.

CONCLUSIONS

The floral ontogeny confirms the close affinity of P. urceoliferum with the florally heterogeneous, early-diverging papilionoid Amburaneae clade. The results strengthen the theory of a distinct experimental phase among early-branching papilionoid legumes during which a wider range of floral morphologies arose. Polysymmetry, monosymmetry, variable organ numbers, and a wide range of ontogenetic patterns laid the foundation for a successful canalization toward the more restricted but well-adapted dorsiventral papilionoid flag blossom.