miRNAs and exosomal miRNAs in lung cancer: New emerging players in tumor progression and therapy response

MicroRNAs as Potential Graft Rejection or Tolerance Biomarkers and Their Dilemma in Clinical Routines Behaving like Devilish, Angelic, or Frightening Elements

Allograft rejection is a widespread complication in allograft recipients with chronic kidney disease. Undertreatment of subclinical and clinical rejection and later post-transplant problems are caused by an imperfect understanding of the mechanisms at play and a lack of adequate diagnostic tools. Many different biomarkers have been analyzed and proposed to detect and monitor these crucial events in transplant outcomes. In this sense, microRNAs may help diagnose rejection or tolerance and indicate appropriate treatment, especially in patients with chronic allograft rejection. As key epigenetic regulators of physiological homeostasis, microRNAs have therapeutic potential and may indicate allograft tolerance or rejection. However, more evidence and clinical validation are indispensable before microRNAs are ready for clinical prime time.