Improved AMBER torsional parameters for the N-N rotational barrier in diacylhydrazines

Azapeptides and their therapeutic potential

Azapeptides are peptide analogs in which one or more of the amino residues is replaced by a semicarbazide. This substitution of a nitrogen for the α-carbon center results in conformational restrictions, which bend the peptide about the aza-amino acid residue away from a linear geometry. The resulting azapeptide turn conformations have been observed by x-ray crystallography and spectroscopy, as well as predicted based on computational models. In biologically active peptide analogs, the aza-substitution has led to enhanced activity and selectivity as well as improved properties, such as prolonged duration of action and metabolic stability. In light of these characteristics, azapeptides have found important uses as receptor ligands, enzyme inhibitors, drugs, pro-drugs, probes and imaging agents. Recent improvements in synthetic methods for their procurement have ushered in a new era of azapeptide chemistry. This review aims to provide a historical look at the development of azapeptide science along with a focus on recent developments and perspectives on the future of this useful tool for medicinal chemistry.

Molecular Modeling of Geometries, Charge Distributions, and Binding Energies of Small, Drug-Like Molecules Containing Nitrogen Heterocycles and Exocyclic Amino Groups in the Gas Phase and Aqueous Solution

We have tested a variety of approximate methods for modeling 30 systems containing mixtures of nitrogen heterocycles and exocyclic amines, each of which is studied with up to 31 methods in one or two phases (gaseous and aqueous). Fifteen of the systems are protonated, and 15 are not. We consider a data set consisting of geometric parameters, partial atomic charges, and water binding energies for the methotrexate fragments 2-(aminomethyl)pyrazine and 2,4-diaminopyrimidine, as well as their cationic forms 1H-2-(aminomethyl)pyrazine and 1H-2,4-diaminopyrimidine. We first evaluated the suitability of several density functionals with the 6-31+G(d,p) basis set to serve as a benchmark by comparing calculated molecular geometries to results obtained from coupled-cluster [CCSD/6-31+G(d,p)] wave function theory (WFT). We found that the M05-2X density functional can be used to obtain reliable geometries for our data set. To accurately model partial charges in our molecules, we elected to utilize the well-validated Charge Model 4 (CM4). In the process of establishing benchmark values, we consider gas-phase coupled cluster and density functional theory (DFT) calculations followed by aqueous-phase DFT calculations, where the effect of solvent is treated by the SM6 quantum mechanical implicit solvation model. The resulting benchmarks were used to test several widely available and economical semiempirical molecular orbital (SE-MO) methods and molecular mechanical (MM) force fields for their ability to accurately predict the partial charges, binding energies to a water molecule, and molecular geometries of representative fragments of methotrexate in the gaseous and aqueous phases, where effects of water were simulated by the SM5.4 and SM5.42 quantum mechanical implicit solvation models for SE-MO and explicit solvation used for MM. In addition, we substituted CM4 charges into the MM force fields tested to observe the effect of improved charge assignment on geometric and energetic modeling. The most accurate MM force fields (with or without CM4 charges substituted) were validated against gas-phase and aqueous-phase geometries and charge distributions of a larger set of 16 drug-like ligands, both neutral and cationic. This process showed that the Merck Molecular Force Field (MMFF94) with or without CM4 charges substituted, is, on average, the most accurate force field for geometries of molecules containing nitrogen heterocycles and exocyclic amino groups, both protonated and unprotonated. This force field was then applied to the complete methotrexate molecule, in an effort to systematically explore its accuracy for trends in geometries and charge distributions. The most accurate force fields for the binding energies of nitrogen heterocycles to a water molecule are OPLS2005 and AMBER.

Human integrin alphavbeta5: homology modeling and ligand binding

The recently reported crystal structures of the extracellular domains of the alphavbeta3 integrin in its unligated state and in complex with the peptide cyclo(-RGDf[NMe]V-) have dramatically increased our understanding of ligand binding to integrins. Nonetheless, ligand selectivity toward different integrin subtypes is still a challenging problem complicated by the fact that 3D structures of most of the integrin subtypes remain unknown. In this study, a three-dimensional model for the human alphavbeta5 integrin was obtained using homology modeling based on the crystal coordinates of alphavbeta3 in its bound conformation as template. The modeled receptor was refined using energy minimization and molecular dynamics simulations in explicit solvent. The refined alphavbeta5 model was used to explore the interactions between this integrin and alphavbeta3/alphavbeta5 dual and alphavbeta3-selective ligands in the attempt to provide a preliminary rationalization, at the molecular level, of ligand selectivity toward the two alphav integrins. It was found that, in the RGD binding site of the alphavbeta5 receptor, a partial "roof" composed mainly of the SDL residues Tyr179 and Lys180 is present and hampers the binding of compounds containing bulky substituents in the proximity of the carboxylate group. This study provides a testable hypothesis for alphav integrins subtype ligand binding selectivity, in line with both mutagenesis data and SARs studies.

Docking studies on alphavbeta3 integrin ligands: pharmacophore refinement and implications for drug design

Starting from the first crystal structure of the extracellular segment of the alpha(v)beta(3) integrin receptor with a cyclic RGD ligand bound to the active site, structural models for the interactions of known ligands with the alpha(v)beta(3) integrin receptor were generated by automated computational docking. The obtained complexes were evaluated for their consistency with structure-activity relationships and site-directed mutagenesis data. A comparison between the calculated interaction free energies and the experimental biological activities was also made. All the possible interactions of the investigated compounds at the active site and the probable ligand binding conformations provide an improved basis for structure-based rational ligand design. Additionally, our docking results allow a further validation and refinement of the pharmacophore model previously postulated by us.

Hydrazino peptides as foldamers: an extension of the beta-peptide concept

Replacing the C(beta) atoms in the beta-amino acid constituents of beta-peptides by nitrogen atoms leads to hydrazino peptides. A systematic conformation analysis of blocked hydrazino peptide oligomers of the general type I at the HF/6-31G, MP2/6-31G, and DFT/B3LYP/6-31G levels of ab initio MO theory and on the basis of molecular mechanics reveals a wide variety of secondary structures, as for instance various helices and sheet- and turnlike conformers. Some of them are closely related to secondary structure types found in beta-peptides; others represent novel types. Thus, a very stable, novel helix with 14-membered hydrogen-bonded pseudocycles, which occupies a conformation space different from that of helices with 14-membered rings found among the most stable conformers in beta-peptides, is indicated. The most important secondary structure elements are characterized by interactions between peptidic NH and CO groups. The additional hydrazino N(alpha)H group takes part in special structuring effects but is of lesser importance for secondary structure formation. The influence of environmental effects on the existence and stability of the various structure types is discussed. Due to the wide variety of structural possibilities, hydrazino peptides might be a useful tool for peptide and protein design.