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Jones AW. Brief history of the alcohol biomarkers CDT, EtG, EtS, 5-HTOL, and PEth. Drug Test Anal 2024; 16:570-587. [PMID: 37806783 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023]
Abstract
This article traces the historical development of various biomarkers of acute and/or chronic alcohol consumption. Much of the research in this domain of clinical and laboratory medicine arose from clinics and laboratories in Sweden, as exemplified by carbohydrate deficient transferrin (CDT) and phosphatidylethanol (PEth). Extensive studies of other alcohol biomarkers, such as ethyl glucuronide (EtG), ethyl sulfate (EtS), and 5-hydroxytryptophol (5-HTOL), also derive from Sweden. The most obvious test of recent drinking is identification of ethanol in a sample of the person's blood, breath, or urine. However, because of continuous metabolism in the liver, ethanol is eliminated from the blood at a rate of 0.15 g/L/h (range 0.1-0.3 g/L/h), so obtaining positive results is not always possible. The widow of detection is increased by analysis of ethanol's non-oxidative metabolites (EtG and EtS), which are more slowly eliminated from the bloodstream. Likewise, an elevated ratio of serotonin metabolites in urine (5-HTOL/5-HIAA) can help to disclose recent drinking after ethanol is no longer measurable in body fluids. A highly specific biomarker of hazardous drinking is CDT, a serum glycoprotein (transferrin), with a deficiency in its N-linked glycosylation. Another widely acclaimed biomarker is PEth, an abnormal phospholipid synthesized in cell membranes when people drink excessively, having a long elimination half-life (median ~6 days) during abstinence. Research on the subject of alcohol biomarkers has increased appreciably and is now an important area of drug testing and analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan Wayne Jones
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Linköping, Linköping, Sweden
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Blum K, Bowirrat A, Gondre Lewis MC, Simpatico TA, Ceccanti M, Steinberg B, Modestino EJ, Thanos PK, Baron D, McLaughlin T, Brewer R, Badgaiyan RD, Ponce JV, Lott L, Gold MS. Exploration of Epigenetic State Hyperdopaminergia (Surfeit) and Genetic Trait Hypodopaminergia (Deficit) During Adolescent Brain Development. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 10. [PMID: 34707969 DOI: 10.2174/2211556010666210215155509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Background The risk for all addictive drug and non-drug behaviors, especially, in the unmyelinated Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) of adolescents, is important and complex. Many animal and human studies show the epigenetic impact on the developing brain in adolescents, compared to adults. Some reveal an underlying hyperdopaminergia that seems to set our youth up for risky behaviors by inducing high quanta pre-synaptic dopamine release at reward site neurons. In addition, altered reward gene expression in adolescents caused epigenetically by social defeat, like bullying, can continue into adulthood. In contrast, there is also evidence that epigenetic events can elicit adolescent hypodopaminergia. This complexity suggests that neuroscience cannot make a definitive claim that all adolescents carry a hyperdopaminergia trait. Objective The primary issue involves the question of whether there exists a mixed hypo or hyper-dopaminergia in this population. Method Genetic Addiction Risk Score (GARS®) testing was carried out of 24 Caucasians of ages 12-19, derived from families with RDS. Results We have found that adolescents from this cohort, derived from RDS parents, displayed a high risk for any addictive behavior (a hypodopaminergia), especially, drug-seeking (95%) and alcohol-seeking (64%). Conclusion The adolescents in our study, although more work is required, show a hypodopaminergic trait, derived from a family with Reward Deficiency Syndrome (RDS). Certainly, in future studies, we will analyze GARS in non-RDS Caucasians between the ages of 12-19. The suggestion is first to identify risk alleles with the GARS test and, then, use well-researched precision, pro-dopamine neutraceutical regulation. This "two-hit" approach might prevent tragic fatalities among adolescents, in the face of the American opioid/psychostimulant epidemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Blum
- Western University Health Sciences, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Pomona, CA.,Eotvos Loránd University, Institute of Psychology, Budapest, Hungary.,Department of Psychiatry, Wright State University Boonshoft School of Medicine and Dayton VA Medical Centre, Dayton, OH., USA.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont School of Medicine, Burlington, VA., USA.,Division of Precision Addiction Management, Geneus Health, LLC., San Antonio, TX.,Center for Genomics and Applied Gene Technology, Institute of Integrative Omics and applied Biotechnology (IIOAB), Nonakuri, Purbe Medinpur, West Bengal, India
| | - Abdalla Bowirrat
- Department of Neuroscience, Interdisciplinary Center (IDC) Herzliya, Israel
| | - Marjorie C Gondre Lewis
- Departments of Anatomy & Psychiatry & Behavioural Sciences, Howard University School of Medicine, Washington, DC,USA
| | - Thomas A Simpatico
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont School of Medicine, Burlington, VA., USA
| | - Mauro Ceccanti
- Department of Translational and Precision Medicine, Sapienza University, Rome - Italy
| | | | | | - Panayotis K Thanos
- Behavior Neuropharmacology and Neuroimaging Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Buffalo Institute of Addiction Research, NY, USA
| | - David Baron
- Western University Health Sciences, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Pomona, CA
| | | | - Raymond Brewer
- Division of Precision Addiction Management, Geneus Health, LLC., San Antonio, TX
| | - Rajendra D Badgaiyan
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY and Department of Psychiatry, South Texas Veteran Health Care System, Audie L. Murphy Memorial VA Hospital, San Antonio, TX, Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Medical Center, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Jessica Valdez Ponce
- Division of Precision Addiction Management, Geneus Health, LLC., San Antonio, TX
| | - Lisa Lott
- Division of Precision Addiction Management, Geneus Health, LLC., San Antonio, TX
| | - Mark S Gold
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO., USA
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Kim J, Park A. A systematic review: Candidate gene and environment interaction on alcohol use and misuse among adolescents and young adults. Am J Addict 2018; 27:345-363. [PMID: 29992684 PMCID: PMC6511325 DOI: 10.1111/ajad.12755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2017] [Revised: 05/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Youth drinking is a pervasive public health concern with serious negative developmental implications. Candidate gene and environment interaction studies (cGxE) show that environmental effects on drinking behaviors may differ by individuals' genotypes. Yet little is known about whether genetic and environmental effects on drinking behaviors are developmentally specific. METHODS This systematic review evaluated 42 cGxE studies of drinking in adolescence and young adulthood. RESULTS Although there are mixed findings, studies of cGxE effects involving DRD4, 5-HTTLPR, DRD2, and OPRM1 genotypes showed relatively consistent patterns. The effects of under-controlled environments (eg, low levels of parental monitoring) on early and middle adolescent drinking appeared to differ across DRD2 or OPRM1 genotypes. Effects of alcohol-facilitating environments (eg, heavy drinking peers) on late adolescent and young adult drinking appeared to differ across DRD4 or OPRM1 genotypes. Interactions between 5-HTTLPR genotype with stressful environments (eg, negative life events) were found throughout adolescence and young adulthood, although there were some inconsistencies regarding the risk-conferring allele. There was limited evidence for other cGxE effects due to the small number of studies. CONCLUSIONS AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE This review suggests that GxE findings may advance our knowledge regarding which developmentally specific conditions result in the expression of candidate genes that influence youth alcohol use and misuse. However, since a significant number of studies had small sample sizes and most studies had small effect sizes, findings need replication across independent studies with large samples. (Am J Addict 2018;XX:1-19).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jueun Kim
- Department of Counseling Psychology, Handong Global University, Pohang, South Korea
| | - Aesoon Park
- Department of Psychology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York
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Zaso MJ, Maisto SA, Glatt SJ, Belote JM, Park A. Interaction Between the μ-Opioid Receptor Gene and the Number of Heavy-Drinking Peers on Alcohol Use. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2017; 41:2041-2050. [PMID: 28992386 PMCID: PMC5711571 DOI: 10.1111/acer.13523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2017] [Accepted: 10/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The presence of heavy-drinking peers may trigger genetic vulnerabilities to alcohol use. Limited correlational findings, albeit mixed as a function of age, suggest that carriers of a μ-opioid receptor (OPRM1) G allele may be more vulnerable than noncarriers to alcohol-promoting perceived peer environments. However, research has not yet examined such genetic susceptibility to actual (rather than perceived) peer environments through an experimental, ad libitum alcohol administration design. This study examined whether OPRM1 modulates the effects of heavy-drinking group size on alcohol consumption and explored potential mediators of such OPRM1-based differences. METHODS Caucasian young adult moderate to heavy drinkers (N = 116; mean age = 22 years [SD = 2.21], 49% female) were randomly assigned to consume alcohol in the presence of none, 1, or 3 heavy-drinking peer confederates. RESULTS Results showed no significant moderating effects of OPRM1 in the relationship between the number (or presence) of heavy-drinking peers and voluntary alcohol consumption (partial η2 = 0.01). This result remained the same after controlling for sex, age, and typical drinking quantity as well as their 2-way interactions with OPRM1 and social drinking condition. In addition, OPRM1 did not moderate the peer influence on any proposed mediating variables, including craving for alcohol and subjective responses to alcohol. CONCLUSIONS Findings suggest no OPRM1-based susceptibility to the number of heavy-drinking peers, adding to the existing mixed findings from correlational studies. Future research on OPRM1-related susceptibility to alcohol-promoting peer environments through meta-analytic synthesis and both experimental and prospective, multiwave designs is needed to resolve these mixed findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle J. Zaso
- Syracuse University, Department of Psychology, 430 Huntington Hall, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA
| | - Stephen A. Maisto
- Syracuse University, Department of Psychology, 430 Huntington Hall, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA
| | - Stephen J. Glatt
- SUNY Upstate Medical University, 750 East Adams Street, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
| | - John M. Belote
- Syracuse University, Center for Reproductive Evolution/Department of Biology, 107 College Place, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA
| | - Aesoon Park
- Syracuse University, Department of Psychology, 430 Huntington Hall, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA
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Nelson KM, Carey KB, Scott-Sheldon LAJ, Eckert TL, Park A, Vanable PA, Ewart CK, Carey MP. Gender Differences in Relations among Perceived Family Characteristics and Risky Health Behaviors in Urban Adolescents. Ann Behav Med 2017; 51:416-422. [PMID: 27995548 PMCID: PMC5441949 DOI: 10.1007/s12160-016-9865-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Research regarding the role of gender in relations between family characteristics and health risk behaviors has been limited. PURPOSE This study aims to investigate gender differences in associations between family processes and risk-taking in adolescents. METHODS Adolescents (N = 249; mean age = 14.5 years) starting their first year at an urban high school in the northeastern USA completed self-report measures that assessed family characteristics (i.e., parental monitoring, family social support, family conflict) and health behaviors (i.e., tobacco use, alcohol use, marijuana use, sex initiation) as part of a prospective, community-based study. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to investigate gender differences in associations between the family characteristics and health behaviors. RESULTS Among males, higher levels of perceived parental monitoring were associated with lower odds of using tobacco and having ever engaged in sex. Among females, higher levels of perceived parental monitoring were associated with lower odds of marijuana use, alcohol use, and having ever engaged in sex. However, in contrast to males, among females (a) higher levels of perceived family social support were associated with lower odds of alcohol use and having ever engaged in sex and (b) higher levels of perceived family conflict were associated with higher odds of marijuana use and having ever engaged in sex. CONCLUSION Family processes were more strongly related to health behaviors among adolescent females than adolescent males. Interventions that increase parental monitoring and family social support as well as decrease family conflict may help to protect against adolescent risk taking, especially for females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly M Nelson
- Centers for Behavioral and Preventative Medicine, The Miriam Hospital, Coro West, Suite 309 164 Summit Ave, Providence, RI, 02906, USA.
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.
| | - Kate B Carey
- Department of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Brown University School of Public Health, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Lori A J Scott-Sheldon
- Centers for Behavioral and Preventative Medicine, The Miriam Hospital, Coro West, Suite 309 164 Summit Ave, Providence, RI, 02906, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
- Department of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Brown University School of Public Health, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Tanya L Eckert
- Department of Psychology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Aesoon Park
- Department of Psychology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Peter A Vanable
- Department of Psychology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Craig K Ewart
- Department of Psychology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Michael P Carey
- Centers for Behavioral and Preventative Medicine, The Miriam Hospital, Coro West, Suite 309 164 Summit Ave, Providence, RI, 02906, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
- Department of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Brown University School of Public Health, Providence, RI, USA
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