Changes in phenolic concentrations during recurrent selection for resistance to the Mediterranean corn borer (Sesamia nonagrioides Lef.)

Role of morphological traits and cell wall components in imparting resistance to pink stem borer, Sesamia inferens Walker in maize

Host Plant Resistance (HPR) is the most important component for sustainable management of insect pests. The purpose of the present work was to understand the role of various morphological and biochemical factors as defense mechanism and their interaction on different biological parameters attributed to survival and development of pink stem borer (PSB), Sesamia inferens Walker in maize. The resistant and moderately resistant genotypes (DMRE 63, CM 500 and WNZ Exotic pool) suffered least leaf injury rating (LIR), dead hearts (DH%), percentage stem tunneling (ST%), number of entry/exit holes (E/EH) and showed deleterious effects on biological parameters of pink stem borer as compared to susceptible ones (CM 202 and BML 6). Resistance index among the genotypes varied from 0.11 to 0.46. The variation in morphological traits such as number of nodes, internode distance and stem diameter could not distinguish all the resistant genotypes from that of susceptible genotypes in terms of its mean value. Higher levels of biochemical constituents, viz., p-Coumaric acid (p-CA), ferulic acid (FA), acid detergent fibre (ADF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL) were observed in resistant genotypes compared to susceptible ones. Antibiosis was expressed in terms of reduced pupal weight when fed on WNZ Exotic pool, whereas larval weight and larval survival affected when fed on DMRE 63. Higher concentration of p-CA content in pith of resistant maize genotypes prolonged the pupal period of pink stem borer. Higher concentration of p-CA and FA contents in rind reduced the adult emergence, as they showed significant negative correlation between them. The larval period was prolonged with higher levels of ADF and ADL contents in maize genotypes either in rind or both rind and pith as both ADF and ADL content showed a significant positive correlation with the larval period. The Pearson correlation analysis of most of the biochemical constituents revealed significant negative correlation with damage parameters. The correlation coefficients between p-CA with DH (%), ST (%) and E/EH were r= -0.9642**, r= -0.9363**, and r= -0.9646**, respectively. Similarly, the correlation coefficients between FA with DH (%), ST (%) and E/EH were r= -0.9217*, r= -0.9563**, and r= -0.9434**, respectively and ADF with DH (%), ST (%) and E/EH were r= -0.9506**, r= -0.9611**, and r= -0.9709**, respectively. The study confirms that stem damage parameters can also be used as selection criteria along with LIR to identify resistant genotypes against pink stem borer. Based on the correlation analysis it was concluded that resistance to pink stem borer in maize is the result of interaction of several morphological and biochemical traits rather than a single factor. The findings obtained from the present study can be utilised in pink stem borer resistance breeding programmes to enhance and diversify the basis of resistance.

CRISPR/Cas9 suppression of OsAT10, a rice BAHD acyltransferase, reduces p-coumaric acid incorporation into arabinoxylan without increasing saccharification

Ester-linked hydroxycinnamic acids ferulic acid (FA) and para-coumaric acid (p-CA) play important roles in crosslinking within cell wall arabinoxylans (AX) and between AX and lignin in grass cell walls. The addition of hydroxycinnamates to AX, is mediated by the Mitchell clade of BAHD acyl-coenzyme A-utilizing transferases. Overexpression of OsAT10 (a Mitchell clade BAHD acyl transferase) in rice, has previously been shown to increase p-CA content in AX in leaves and stems, leading to increased cell wall digestibility, potentially associated with a concomitant decrease in FA content. To investigate the physiological role of OsAT10 we established CRISPR/Cas9 rice knock-out mutants devoid of OsAT10. Our analysis of hydroxycinnamic acid content in wild type plants revealed that AX associated p-CA is found almost exclusively in rice husks, with very little found in other tissues. Mutant plants were essentially devoid of ester-linked p-CA associated with AX, indicating that OsAT10 represents the major enzyme responsible for the addition of p-CA to arabinoxylan in rice plants. We found no change in the digestibility of rice husk lacking AX-associated p-CA, suggesting that the changes in digestibility seen in OsAT10 overexpressing plants were solely due to compensatory decreases in AX-associated FA.

Elucidating the multifunctional role of the cell wall components in the maize exploitation

BACKGROUND

Besides the use of maize grain as food and feed, maize stover can be a profitable by-product for cellulosic ethanol production, whereas the whole plant can be used for silage production. However, yield is reduced by pest damages, stem corn borers being one of the most important yield constraints. Overall, cell wall composition is key in determining the quality of maize biomass, as well as pest resistance. This study aims to evaluate the composition of the four cell wall fractions (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and hydroxycinnamates) in diverse maize genotypes and to understand how this composition influences the resistance to pests, ethanol capacity and digestibility.

RESULTS

The following results can be highlighted: (i) pests' resistant materials may show cell walls with low p-coumaric acid and low hemicellulose content; (ii) inbred lines showing cell walls with high cellulose content and high diferulate cross-linking may present higher performance for ethanol production; (iii) and inbreds with enhanced digestibility may have cell walls poor in neutral detergent fibre and diferulates, combined with a lignin polymer composition richer in G subunits.

CONCLUSIONS

Results evidence that there is no maize cell wall ideotype among the tested for optimal performance for various uses, and maize plants should be specifically bred for each particular application.

Unraveling the role of maize (Zea mays L.) cell-wall phenylpropanoids in stem-borer resistance

The cell wall putatively plays a role in host-plant resistance to phytopathogens. Here, we investigated which cell wall-bound phenolic compounds have determining roles in maize (Zea mays) resistance to attack by the Mediterranean corn borer Sesamia nonagrioides (Lefèbvre). Diverse sets of maize genotypes having contrasting hydroxycinnamate contents and borer resistance levels were evaluated. The interdependent relationships among some cell wall-bound phenolic compounds, such as ferulic acid and its dimers, or p-coumaric acid and syringyl lignin subunits, were analyzed. Both p-coumaric acid and syringyl momoners showed significant negative correlations with damage, as assessed by tunnel lengths, caused by S. nonagrioides larvae. Thus, the use of cell wall-bound p-coumaric acid in pest-resistant crop breeding programs is advisable.

Genome-wide association analysis for maize stem Cell Wall-bound Hydroxycinnamates

BACKGROUND

The structural reinforcement of cell walls by hydroxycinnamates has a significant role in defense against pests and pathogens, but it also interferes with forage digestibility and biofuel production. Elucidation of maize genetic variations that contribute to variation for stem hydroxycinnamate content could simplify breeding for cell wall strengthening by using markers linked to the most favorable genetic variants in marker-assisted selection or genomic selection approaches​.

RESULTS

A genome-wide association study was conducted using a subset of 282 inbred lines from a maize diversity panel to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with stem cell wall hydroxycinnamate content. A total of 5, 8, and 2 SNPs were identified as significantly associated to p-coumarate, ferulate, and total diferulate concentrations, respectively in the maize pith. Attending to particular diferulate isomers, 3, 6, 1 and 2 SNPs were related to 8-O-4 diferulate, 5-5 diferulate, 8-5 diferulate and 8-5 linear diferulate contents, respectively. This study has the advantage of being done with direct biochemical determinations instead of using estimates based on Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) predictions. In addition, novel genomic regions involved in hydroxycinnamate content were found, such as those in bins 1.06 (for FA), 4.01 (for PCA and FA), 5.04 (for FA), 8.05 (for PCA), and 10.03 and 3.06 (for DFAT and some dimers).

CONCLUSIONS

The effect of individual SNPs significantly associated with stem hydroxycinnamate content was low, explaining a low percentage of total phenotypic variability (7 to 10%). Nevertheless, we spotlighted new genomic regions associated with the accumulation of cell-wall-bound hydroxycinnamic acids in the maize stem, and genes involved in cell wall modulation in response to biotic and abiotic stresses have been proposed as candidate genes for those quantitative trait loci (QTL). In addition, we cannot rule out that uncharacterized genes linked to significant SNPs could be implicated in dimer formation and arobinoxylan feruloylation because genes involved in those processes have been poorly characterized. Overall, genomic selection considering markers distributed throughout the whole genome seems to be a more appropriate breeding strategy than marker-assisted selection focused in markers linked to QTL.

Effect of Long-Term Feeding by Borers on the Antibiotic Properties of Corn Stems

Plant long-term response against chewing insects could become stronger than initial reactions and even turn into systemic. The objectives of the present study were 1) to evaluate whether the long-running attack to the stem by corn borers can improve the stem antibiotic properties; 2) to check whether hydroxycinnamic acids could be involved in this antibiotic response; 3) and to check whether elicitation by Sesamia nonagrioides Lef. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) regurgitant could activate long-term plant responses. In this sense, we observed that long-term feeding by S. nonagrioides larvae induced genotype-dependent changes in stem antibiosis and phenolic profiles, but the hydroxycinnamate content does not have a significant role in the systemic defense induced by the attack. In addition, response to long-term feeding by larvae could not be fully mimicked by elicitation using S. nonagrioides regurgitant alone. For the first time, it has been demonstrated that 'long-term' attack to the stem by corn borers can increase the stem antibiotic properties, and this has to be considered attending to breeding strategies.

Maize Stem Response to Long-Term Attack by Sesamia nonagrioides

Plants defend themselves against herbivores by activating a plethora of genetic and biochemical mechanisms aimed at reducing plant damage and insect survival. The short-term plant response to insect attack is well understood, but less is known about the maintenance of this response over time. We performed transcriptomic and metabolomics analyses in order to identify genes and metabolites involved in the long-term response of maize to attack by the corn borer Sesamina nonagrioides. To determine the role of elicitors present in caterpillar secretions, we also evaluated the response of maize stem challenged with insect regurgitates. The integrative analysis of the omics results revealed that the long-term response in maize is characterized by repression of the primary metabolism and a strong redox response, mainly mediated by germin-like proteins to produce anti-nutritive and toxic compounds that reduce insect viability, and with the glutathione-ascorbate cycle being crucial to minimize the adverse effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS) on the plant. Our results suggest that different defense mechanisms are involved in the long-term response compared to those reported during the early response. We also observed a marginal effect of the caterpillar regurgitates on the long-term defensive response.

Hydroxycinnamate Synthesis and Association with Mediterranean Corn Borer Resistance

Previous results suggest a relationship between maize hydroxycinnamate concentration in the pith tissues and resistance to stem tunneling by Mediterranean corn borer (MCB, Sesamia nonagrioides Lef.) larvae. This study performs a more precise experiment, mapping an F2 derived from the cross between two inbreds with contrasting levels for hydroxycinnamates EP125 × PB130. We aimed to co-localize genomic regions involved in hydroxycinnamate synthesis and resistance to MCB and to highlight the particular route for each hydroxycinnamate component in relation to the better known phenylpropanoid pathway. Seven quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for p-coumarate, two QTLs for ferulate, and seven QTLs for total diferulates explained 81.7, 26.9, and 57.8% of the genotypic variance, respectively. In relation to borer resistance, alleles for increased hydroxycinnamate content (affecting one or more hydroxycinnamate compounds) could be associated with favorable effects on stem resistance to MCB, particularly the putative role of p-coumarate in borer resistance.

Covalent cross-linking of cell-wall polysaccharides through esterified diferulates as a maize resistance mechanism against corn borers

There is strong evidence to suggest that cross-linking of cell-wall polymers through ester-linked diferulates has a key role in plant resistance to pests; however, direct experimentation to provide conclusive proof is lacking. This study presents an evaluation of the damage caused by two corn borer species on six maize populations particularly selected for divergent diferulate concentrations in pith stem tissues. Maize populations selected for high total diferulate concentration had 31% higher diferulates than those selected for low diferulates. Stem tunneling by corn borer species was 29% greater in the population with the lowest diferulates than in the population with the highest diferulates (31.7 versus 22.6 cm), whereas total diferulate concentration was negatively correlated with stem tunneling by corn borers. Moreover, orthogonal contrasts between groups of populations evaluated showed that larvae fed in laboratory bioassays on pith stem tissues from maize populations with higher diferulates had 30-40% lower weight than larvae fed on the same tissues from maize populations with lower diferulates. This is the first report that shows a direct relationship between diferulate deposition in maize cell walls and corn borer resistance. Current findings will help to develop adapted maize varieties with an acceptable level of resistance against borers and be useful in special kinds of agriculture, such as organic farming.

High basal defense gene expression determines sorghum resistance to the whorl-feeding insect southwestern corn borer

Southwestern corn borer (SWCB, Diatraea grandiosella) and fall armyworm (FAW, Spodoptera frugiperda) are major pests of sorghum in the southern United States. Host plant resistance is a desirable means for reducing plant damage and yield losses from both insects. In this study, we evaluated 12 sorghum lines for whorl-stage resistance to leaf-feeding SWCB and FAW in greenhouse and laboratory bioassays. Differential plant responses were detected against the two insects. Among 12 lines tested, CM1821, Della and PI196583 were resistant to both insects, while BTx2752 was largely susceptible. Line R.09110 was resistant to SWCB, but susceptible to FAW, whereas Redbine-60 was susceptible to SWCB, but not to FAW. In addition, we quantified various chemical components in the plants and determined their association with insect resistance. Tannin and chlorophyll in leaves did not show any significant correlation with resistance to either insects, but contents of soluble protein in general were negatively correlated with resistance to both insects. Endogenous soluble sugar and dhurrin were only positively correlated with resistance to SWCB, but not with FAW resistance. To gain some molecular insight into resistance mechanism of sorghum to SWCB, we performed qPCR reactions for key genes encoding enzymes involved in dhurrin and jasmonic acid (JA) biosynthesis on selected resistant or susceptible lines. Although these genes were rapidly and strongly induced by insect feeding in all lines, the observed resistance is likely explained by higher constitutive dhurrin contents in some resistant lines and higher basal JA biosynthesis in others. Our results suggest that sorghum utilizes multiple strategies to defend itself against SWCB.

Overexpression of a BAHD acyltransferase, OsAt10, alters rice cell wall hydroxycinnamic acid content and saccharification

Grass cell wall properties influence food, feed, and biofuel feedstock usage efficiency. The glucuronoarabinoxylan of grass cell walls is esterified with the phenylpropanoid-derived hydroxycinnamic acids ferulic acid (FA) and para-coumaric acid (p-CA). Feruloyl esters undergo oxidative coupling with neighboring phenylpropanoids on glucuronoarabinoxylan and lignin. Examination of rice (Oryza sativa) mutants in a grass-expanded and -diverged clade of BAHD acyl-coenzyme A-utilizing transferases identified four mutants with altered cell wall FA or p-CA contents. Here, we report on the effects of overexpressing one of these genes, OsAt10 (LOC_Os06g39390), in rice. An activation-tagged line, OsAT10-D1, shows a 60% reduction in matrix polysaccharide-bound FA and an approximately 300% increase in p-CA in young leaf tissue but no discernible phenotypic alterations in vegetative development, lignin content, or lignin composition. Two additional independent OsAt10 overexpression lines show similar changes in FA and p-CA content. Cell wall fractionation and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry experiments isolate the cell wall alterations in the mutant to ester conjugates of a five-carbon sugar with p-CA and FA. These results suggest that OsAT10 is a p-coumaroyl coenzyme A transferase involved in glucuronoarabinoxylan modification. Biomass from OsAT10-D1 exhibits a 20% to 40% increase in saccharification yield depending on the assay. Thus, OsAt10 is an attractive target for improving grass cell wall quality for fuel and animal feed.

Impact of cell wall composition on maize resistance to pests and diseases

In cereals, the primary cell wall is built of a skeleton of cellulosic microfibrils embedded in a matrix of hemicelluloses and smaller amounts of pectins, glycoproteins and hydroxycinnamates. Later, during secondary wall development, p-coumaryl, coniferyl and sinapyl alcohols are copolymerized to form mixed lignins. Several of these cell wall components show a determinative role in maize resistance to pest and diseases. However, defense mechanisms are very complex and vary among the same plant species, different tissues or even the same tissue at different developmental stages. Thus, it is important to highlight that the role of the cell wall components needs to be tested in diverse genotypes and specific tissues where the feeding or attacking by the pathogen takes place. Understanding the role of cell wall constituents as defense mechanisms may allow modifications of crops to withstand pests and diseases.

Inducible maize defense mechanisms against the corn borer Sesamia nonagrioides: a transcriptome and biochemical approach

In spite of multiple studies elucidating individual defense mechanisms against stalk borer feeding, little information is available about the plant response to these members of Lepidoptera. Four maize inbred lines were cultivated in a greenhouse and challenged with larvae of the corn borer Sesamia nonagrioides. Transcriptome and biochemical analyses were performed to elucidate the maize response mechanisms to this insect. General plant defense mechanisms were activated, including the jasmonic acid biosynthetic pathway, proteinase inhibitors, and four defense-related transcription factors. Interestingly, gene ontology analysis shows that maize plants undergo cell-wall reorganization after being attacked. These results were confirmed through biochemical analyses showing that the concentration of some cell-wall-related compounds significantly changed after plant infestation in a genotype-dependent way. In conclusion, maize plants respond to the attack of the corn borer S. nonagrioides through cell-wall fortification, activating genes involved in cell-wall organization, which finally is reflected in a higher concentration of some cell-wall components, especially in resistant genotypes.

Is the basal area of maize internodes involved in borer resistance?

BACKGROUND

To elucidate the role of the length of the internode basal ring (LIBR) in resistance to the Mediterranean corn borer (MCB), we carried out a divergent selection program to modify the LIBR using two maize synthetic varieties (EPS20 and EPS21), each with a different genetic background. We investigated the biochemical mechanisms underlying the relationship between the LIBR and borer resistance. Selection to lengthen or shorten the LIBR was achieved for each synthetic variety. The resulting plants were analyzed to determine their LIBR response, growth, yield, and borer resistance.

RESULTS

In the synthetic variety EPS20 (Reid germplasm), reduction of the LIBR improved resistance against the MCB. The LIBR selection was also effective in the synthetic variety EPS21 (non-Reid germplasm), although there was no relationship detected between the LIBR and MCB resistance. The LIBR did not show correlations with agronomic traits such as plant height and yield. Compared with upper sections, the internode basal ring area contained lower concentrations of cell wall components such as acid detergent fiber (ADF), acid detergent lignin (ADL), and diferulates. In addition, some residual 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-(2H)-1,4-benzoxazin-3-(4H)-one (DIMBOA), a natural antibiotic compound, was detected in the basal area at 30 days after silking.

CONCLUSION

We analyzed maize selections to determine whether the basal area of maize internodes is involved in borer resistance. The structural reinforcement of the cell walls was the most significant trait in the relationship between the LIBR and borer resistance. Lower contents of ADF and ADL in the rind of the basal section facilitated the entry of larvae in this area in both synthetic varieties, while lower concentrations of diferulates in the pith basal section of EPS20 facilitated larval feeding inside the stem. The higher concentrations of DIMBOA may have contributed to the lack of correlation between the LIBR and borer resistance in EPS21. This novel trait could be useful in maize breeding programs to improve borer resistance.

Cell wall composition as a maize defense mechanism against corn borers

European and Mediterranean corn borers are two of the most economically important insect pests of maize (Zea mays L.) in North America and southern Europe, respectively. Cell wall structure and composition were evaluated in pith and rind tissues of resistant and susceptible inbred lines as possible corn borer resistance traits. Composition of cell wall polysaccharides, lignin concentration and composition, and cell wall bound forms of hydroxycinnamic acids were measured. As expected, most of the cell wall components were found at higher concentrations in the rind than in the pith tissues, with the exception of galactose and total diferulate esters. Pith of resistant inbred lines had significantly higher concentrations of total cell wall material than susceptible inbred lines, indicating that the thickness of cell walls could be the initial barrier against corn borer larvae attack. Higher concentrations of cell wall xylose and 8-O-4-coupled diferulate were found in resistant inbreds. Stem tunneling by corn borers was negatively correlated with concentrations of total diferulates, 8-5-diferulate and p-coumarate esters. Higher total cell wall, xylose, and 8-coupled diferulates concentrations appear to be possible mechanisms of corn borer resistance.

Role of dehydrodiferulates in maize resistance to pests and diseases

Phenolic esters have attracted considerable interest due to the potential they offer for peroxidase catalysed cross-linking of cell wall polysaccharides. Particularly, feruloyl residues undergo radical coupling reactions that result in cross-linking (intra-/intermolecular) between polysaccharides, between polysaccharides and lignin and, between polysaccharides and proteins. This review addresses for the first time different studies in which it is established that cross-linking by dehydrodiferulates contributes to maize's defences to pests and diseases. Dehydrodiferulate cross-links are involved in maize defence mechanisms against insects such as the European, Mediterranean, and tropical corn borers and, storage pest as the maize weevil. In addition, cross-links are also discussed to be involved in genetic resistance of maize to fungus diseases as Gibberella ear and stalk rot. Resistance against insects and fungus attending dehydrodiferulates could go hand in hand. Quantitative trait loci mapping for these cell wall components could be a useful tool for enhancing resistance to pest and diseases in future breeding programs.