Mapping the genome one molecule at a time--optical mapping

Inhaled nitric oxide: role in the pathophysiology of cardio-cerebrovascular and respiratory diseases

Nitric oxide (NO) is a key molecule in the biology of human life. NO is involved in the physiology of organ viability and in the pathophysiology of organ dysfunction, respectively. In this narrative review, we aimed at elucidating the mechanisms behind the role of NO in the respiratory and cardio-cerebrovascular systems, in the presence of a healthy or dysfunctional endothelium. NO is a key player in maintaining multiorgan viability with adequate organ blood perfusion. We report on its physiological endogenous production and effects in the circulation and within the lungs, as well as the pathophysiological implication of its disturbances related to NO depletion and excess. The review covers from preclinical information about endogenous NO produced by nitric oxide synthase (NOS) to the potential therapeutic role of exogenous NO (inhaled nitric oxide, iNO). Moreover, the importance of NO in several clinical conditions in critically ill patients such as hypoxemia, pulmonary hypertension, hemolysis, cerebrovascular events and ischemia-reperfusion syndrome is evaluated in preclinical and clinical settings. Accordingly, the mechanism behind the beneficial iNO treatment in hypoxemia and pulmonary hypertension is investigated. Furthermore, investigating the pathophysiology of brain injury, cardiopulmonary bypass, and red blood cell and artificial hemoglobin transfusion provides a focus on the potential role of NO as a protective molecule in multiorgan dysfunction. Finally, the preclinical toxicology of iNO and the antimicrobial role of NO-including its recent investigation on its role against the Sars-CoV2 infection during the COVID-19 pandemic-are described.

A Parallelized Nanofluidic Device for High-Throughput Optical DNA Mapping of Bacterial Plasmids

Optical DNA mapping (ODM) has developed into an important technique for DNA analysis, where single DNA molecules are sequence-specifically labeled and stretched, for example, in nanofluidic channels. We have developed an ODM assay to analyze bacterial plasmids-circular extrachromosomal DNA that often carry genes that make bacteria resistant to antibiotics. As for most techniques, the next important step is to increase throughput and automation. In this work, we designed and fabricated a nanofluidic device that, together with a simple automation routine, allows parallel analysis of up to 10 samples at the same time. Using plasmids encoding extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL), isolated from Escherichiacoli and Klebsiellapneumoniae, we demonstrate the multiplexing capabilities of the device when it comes to both many samples in parallel and different resistance genes. As a final example, we combined the device with a novel protocol for rapid cultivation and extraction of plasmids from fecal samples collected from patients. This combined protocol will make it possible to analyze many patient samples in one device already on the day the sample is collected, which is an important step forward for the ODM analysis of plasmids in clinical diagnostics.

DNA binding fluorescent proteins as single-molecule probes

DNA binding fluorescent proteins are useful probes for a broad range of biological applications.

Applications of optical DNA mapping in microbiology

Optical mapping (OM) has been used in microbiology for the past 20 years, initially as a technique to facilitate DNA sequence-based studies; however, with decreases in DNA sequencing costs and increases in sequence output from automated sequencing platforms, OM has grown into an important auxiliary tool for genome assembly and comparison. Currently, there are a number of new and exciting applications for OM in the field of microbiology, including investigation of disease outbreaks, identification of specific genes of clinical and/or epidemiological relevance, and the possibility of single-cell analysis when combined with cell-sorting approaches. In addition, designing lab-on-a-chip systems based on OM is now feasible and will allow the integrated and automated microbiological analysis of biological fluids. Here, we review the basic technology of OM, detail the current state of the art of the field, and look ahead to possible future developments in OM technology for microbiological applications.

Combing of genomic DNA from droplets containing picograms of material

Deposition of linear DNA molecules is a critical step in many single-molecule genomic approaches including DNA mapping, fiber-FISH, and several emerging sequencing technologies. In the ideal situation, the DNA that is deposited for these experiments is absolutely linear and uniformly stretched, thereby enabling accurate distance measurements. However, this is rarely the case, and furthermore, current approaches for the capture and linearization of DNA on a surface tend to require complex surface preparation and large amounts of starting material to achieve genomic-scale mapping. This makes them technically demanding and prevents their application in emerging fields of genomics, such as single-cell based analyses. Here we describe a simple and extremely efficient approach to the deposition and linearization of genomic DNA molecules. We employ droplets containing as little as tens of picograms of material and simply drag them, using a pipet tip, over a polymer-coated coverslip. In this report we highlight one particular polymer, Zeonex, which is remarkably efficient at capturing DNA. We characterize the method of DNA capture on the Zeonex surface and find that the use of droplets greatly facilitates the efficient deposition of DNA. This is the result of a circulating flow in the droplet that maintains a high DNA concentration at the interface of the surface/solution. Overall, our approach provides an accessible route to the study of genomic structural variation from samples containing no more than a handful of cells.

Mapping and sequencing DNA using nanopores and nanodetectors

Even prior to the introduction of capillary DNA sequencers, nanopores were discussed as a low-cost, high-throughput substrate for sequencing. Since then, other next-generation sequencing technologies have been developed and achieved widespread use, but nanopores have lagged behind due to difficulties in generating usable sequence data. The practical and theoretical issues of translocation speed and signal detection encountered when attempting to sequence DNA with nanopores are discussed. Various methods that different laboratories have used to overcome difficulties in biologically based and solid-state nanopores are also presented. Different approaches designed to circumvent the overriding issue of detecting signals from individual bases in a time-resolved manner in nanopores are described. For example, genomic positional sequencing utilizes hybridization of short oligonucleotide probes to very long DNA templates and then detects these probes by variations in current blockade in solid-state nanodetectors. The positions of the probes relative to each other and relative to the ends of the DNA are determined by measuring the time between current blockade peaks. By assembling many such measurements, it is possible to overcome the problems encountered when attempting to sequence DNA at high speed in nanopores, providing the potential for true de novo sequencing of large genomes on a routine basis.

Genomic characterization of the Yersinia genus

Comparative Yersinia genomics identifies features responsible for the colonization of specific host habitats and the horizontal transfer of virulence determinants.

Background

New DNA sequencing technologies have enabled detailed comparative genomic analyses of entire genera of bacterial pathogens. Prior to this study, three species of the enterobacterial genus Yersinia that cause invasive human diseases (Yersinia pestis, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, and Yersinia enterocolitica) had been sequenced. However, there were no genomic data on the Yersinia species with more limited virulence potential, frequently found in soil and water environments.

Results

We used high-throughput sequencing-by-synthesis instruments to obtain 25- to 42-fold average redundancy, whole-genome shotgun data from the type strains of eight species: Y. aldovae, Y. bercovieri, Y. frederiksenii, Y. kristensenii, Y. intermedia, Y. mollaretii, Y. rohdei, and Y. ruckeri. The deepest branching species in the genus, Y. ruckeri, causative agent of red mouth disease in fish, has the smallest genome (3.7 Mb), although it shares the same core set of approximately 2,500 genes as the other members of the species, whose genomes range in size from 4.3 to 4.8 Mb. Yersinia genomes had a similar global partition of protein functions, as measured by the distribution of Cluster of Orthologous Groups families. Genome to genome variation in islands with genes encoding functions such as ureases, hydrogeneases and B-12 cofactor metabolite reactions may reflect adaptations to colonizing specific host habitats.

Conclusions

Rapid high-quality draft sequencing was used successfully to compare pathogenic and non-pathogenic members of the Yersinia genus. This work underscores the importance of the acquisition of horizontally transferred genes in the evolution of Y. pestis and points to virulence determinants that have been gained and lost on multiple occasions in the history of the genus.

Progress and prospects in rat genetics: a community view

The rat is an important system for modeling human disease. Four years ago, the rich 150-year history of rat research was transformed by the sequencing of the rat genome, ushering in an era of exceptional opportunity for identifying genes and pathways underlying disease phenotypes. Genome-wide association studies in human populations have recently provided a direct approach for finding robust genetic associations in common diseases, but identifying the precise genes and their mechanisms of action remains problematic. In the context of significant progress in rat genomic resources over the past decade, we outline achievements in rat gene discovery to date, show how these findings have been translated to human disease, and document an increasing pace of discovery of new disease genes, pathways and mechanisms. Finally, we present a set of principles that justify continuing and strengthening genetic studies in the rat model, and further development of genomic infrastructure for rat research.

Scoring single-nucleotide polymorphisms at the single-molecule level by counting individual DNA cleavage events on surfaces

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are the most frequent type of human genetic variation. Recent work has shown that it is possible to directly analyze SNPs in unamplified human genomic DNA samples using the surface-invasive cleavage reaction followed by rolling circle amplification (RCA) of the cleavage products. The ability of RCA to produce single-stranded DNA tens of thousands of nucleotides in length from a single cleaved DNA molecule on the surface suggested the possibility of detecting individual cleavage events on the surface. The feasibility of this approach to SNP scoring is shown here. Individual cleavage events on the surface are detected using fluorescence microscopy to visualize the single-stranded DNA product of the RCA reaction labeled with the fluorescent dye SYBR Green I. The surface density of fluorescent features observed is dependent upon the concentration of target DNA. Future reductions of the sample volume and optimization of the reaction conditions offer the potential of being able to perform such analyses on as little as a single copy of genomic DNA target.

The dawn of fungal pathogen genomics

Recent advances in sequencing technologies have led to a remarkable increase in the number of sequenced fungal genomes. Several important plant pathogenic fungi are among those that have been sequenced or are being sequenced. Additional fungal pathogens are likely to be sequenced in the near future. Analysis of the available genomes has provided useful information about genes that may be important for plant infection and colonization. Genome features, such as repetitive sequences, telomeres, conserved syntenic blocks, and expansion of pathogenicity-related genes, are discussed in detail with Magnaporthe oryzae (M. grisea) and Fusarium graminearum as examples. Functional and comparative genomic studies in plant pathogenic fungi, although still in the early stages and limited to a few pathogens, have enormous potential to improve our understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in host-pathogen interactions. Development of advanced genomics tools and infrastructure is critical for efficient utilization of the vast wealth of available genome sequence information and will form a solid foundation for systems biology studies of plant pathogenic fungi.

An algorithm combining discrete and continuous methods for optical mapping

Optical mapping is a novel technique for generating the restriction map of a DNA molecule by observing many single, partially digested copies of it, using fluorescence microscopy. The real-life problem is complicated by numerous factors: false positive and false negative cut observations, inaccurate location measurements, unknown orientations, and faulty molecules. We present an algorithm for solving the real-life problem. The algorithm combines continuous optimization and combinatorial algorithms applied to a nonuniform discretization of the data. We present encouraging results on real experimental data and on simulated data.

Algorithms for optical mapping

Optical mapping is a novel technique for determining the restriction sites on a DNA molecule by directly observing a number of partially digested copies of the molecule under a light microscope. The problem is complicated by uncertainty as to the orientation of the molecules and by erroneous detection of cuts. In this paper we study the problem of constructing a restriction map based on optical mapping data. We give several variants of a polynomial reconstruction algorithm, as well as an algorithm that is exponential in the number of cut sites, and hence is appropriate only for small number of cut sites. We give a simple probabilistic model for data generation and for the errors and prove probabilistic upper and lower bounds on the number of molecules needed by each algorithm in order to obtain a correct map, expressed as a function of the number of cut sites and the error parameters. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first probabilistic analysis of algorithms for the problem. We also provide experimental results confirming that our algorithms are highly effective on simulated data.

Whole-genome shotgun optical mapping of Deinococcus radiodurans

A whole-genome restriction map of Deinococcus radiodurans, a radiation-resistant bacterium able to survive up to 15,000 grays of ionizing radiation, was constructed without using DNA libraries, the polymerase chain reaction, or electrophoresis. Very large, randomly sheared, genomic DNA fragments were used to construct maps from individual DNA molecules that were assembled into two circular overlapping maps (2.6 and 0.415 megabases), without gaps. A third smaller chromosome (176 kilobases) was identified and characterized. Aberrant nonlinear DNA structures that may define chromosome structure and organization, as well as intermediates in DNA repair, were directly visualized by optical mapping techniques after gamma irradiation.

Solid-state DNA sizing by atomic force microscopy

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) allows rapid, accurate, and reproducible visualization of DNA adsorbed onto solid supports. The images reflect the lengths of the DNA molecules in the sample. Here we propose a solid-state DNA sizing (SSDS) method based on AFM as an analytical method for high-throughput applications such as finger-printing, restriction mapping, +/- screening, and genotyping. For this process, the sample is first deposited onto a solid support by adsorption from solution. It is then dried and imaged under ambient conditions by AFM. The resulting images are subjected to automated determination of the lengths of the DNA molecules on the surface. The result is a histogram of sizes that is similar to densitometric scans of DNA samples separated on gels. A direct comparison of SSDS with agarose gel electrophoresis for +/- screening shows that it produces equivalent results. Advantages of SSDS include reduced sample size (i.e., lower reagent costs), rapid analysis of single samples, and potential for full automation using available technology. The high sensitivity of the method also allows the number of polymerase chain reaction cycles to be reduced to 15 or less. Because the high signal-to-noise ratio of the AFM allows for direct visualization of DNA-binding proteins, different DNA conformations, restriction enzymes, and other DNA modifications, there is potential for dramatically improving the information content in this type of analysis.

Genomics via optical mapping. II: Ordered restriction maps

In this paper, we describe our algorithmic approach to constructing ordered restriction maps based on the data created from the images of population of individual DNA molecules (clones) digested by restriction enzymes. The goal is to devise map-making algorithms capable of producing high-resolution, high-accuracy maps rapidly and in a scalable manner. The resulting software is a key component of our optical mapping automation tools and has been used routinely to map cosmid, lambda and BAC clones. The experimental results appear highly promising.

Optical mapping approaches to molecular genomics

A variety of physical mapping methods exist for the analysis of nucleic acids or genomes, including hybridization, sequence tagged site mapping, restriction enzyme fingerprinting, radiation hybrid mapping and optical mapping. Single-molecule approaches offer numerous advantages, including very high resolution, small sample size requirements, and parallel sample processing. The convergence of recent advances in new single molecule techniques, surface chemistry and machine vision technology has contributed to novel approaches to genome analysis.

Optical detection of single molecules

Recent advances in ultrasensitive instrumentation have allowed for the detection, identification, and dynamic studies of single molecules in the condensed phase. This measurement capability provides a new set of tools for scientists to address important current problems and to explore new frontiers in many scientific disciplines, such as chemistry, molecular biology, molecular medicine, and nanostructured materials. This review focuses on the methodologies and biological applications of single-molecule detection based on laser-induced fluorescence.