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Hermann LA, Tur B, Köberlein MC, Gantner S, Westphalen C, Benthaus T, Döllinger M, Kniesburges S, Echternach M. Aerosol Dispersion During Different Phonatory Tasks in Amateur Singers. J Voice 2024; 38:731-740. [PMID: 34963518 DOI: 10.1016/j.jvoice.2021.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Due to increased aerosol generation during singing, choir rehearsals were widely prohibited in the course of the CoVID-19 pandemic. Most studies on aerosol generation and dispersion focus on professional singers. However, it has not been clarified if these data are also representative for amateur singers. METHODS Nine non-professional singers (four male, five female) were asked to perform five tasks; speaking (T+), singing a text softly (MT-) and loudly (MT+), singing on the vowel [ə] (M+) and singing with a N95 mask (MT+N95). Before performing the tasks, the singers were asked to inhale 0.5 L vapor produced by an e-cigarette consisting of the basic liquid. The spread of the exhaled vapor was recorded in all three dimensions by high-definition cameras and the impulse dispersion was detected as a function of time. RESULTS Regarding the median dispersion to the front, all tasks showed comparable distances from 0.69 m to 0.82 m at the end of the tasks. However, the maximum aerosol dispersion showed a larger variety among different subjects or tasks, respectively. Especially in the M+ task a maximum distance of 1.96 m to the front was reached by a single subject. Although singing with a N95 mask resulted in a slightly increased median dispersion to the front, the maximum dispersion was decreased from 1.47 m (MT+) to 1.04 m (MT+N95). CONCLUSION The maximum dispersion distance to the front of 1.96 m at the end of the M+ task and 1.47 m at the end of the MT+ task showed higher values in comparison to professional singers. Differences in phonation, articulation and mouth opening could lead to greater impulse dispersion. Singing in loud phonation with a N95 mask reduced the maximum impulse dispersion to the front to 1.04 m. Taking all results into consideration, a slightly larger safety distance should be necessary for non-professional singers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laila Ava Hermann
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Munich University Hospital (LMU), Munich, Germany
| | - Bogac Tur
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head & Neck Surgery, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Marie Christine Köberlein
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Munich University Hospital (LMU), Munich, Germany
| | - Sophia Gantner
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Munich University Hospital (LMU), Munich, Germany
| | - Caroline Westphalen
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Munich University Hospital (LMU), Munich, Germany
| | - Tobias Benthaus
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Munich University Hospital (LMU), Munich, Germany
| | - Michael Döllinger
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head & Neck Surgery, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Stefan Kniesburges
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head & Neck Surgery, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Matthias Echternach
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Munich University Hospital (LMU), Munich, Germany.
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Echternach M, Ava Hermann L, Gantner S, Tur B, Peters G, Westphalen C, Benthaus T, Köberlein M, Kuranova L, Döllinger M, Kniesburges S. The Effect of Singers' Masks on the Impulse Dispersion of Aerosols During Singing. J Voice 2024; 38:247.e1-247.e10. [PMID: 34610881 DOI: 10.1016/j.jvoice.2021.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND During the Covid-19 pandemic, singing activities were restricted due to several super-spreading events that have been observed during rehearsals and vocal performances. However, it has not been clarified how the aerosol dispersion, which has been assumed to be the leading transmission factor, could be reduced by masks which are specially designed for singers. MATERIAL AND METHODS Twelve professional singers (10 of the Bavarian Radio-Chorus and two freelancers, seven females and five males) were asked to sing the melody of the ode of joy of Beethoven's 9th symphony "Freude schöner Götterfunken, Tochter aus Elisium" in D-major without masks and afterwards with five different singers' masks, all distinctive in their material and proportions. Every task was conducted after inhaling the basic liquid from an e-cigarette. The aerosol dispersion was recorded by three high-definition video cameras during and after the task. The cloud was segmented and the dispersion was analyzed for all three spatial dimensions. Further, the subjects were asked to rate the practicability of wearing the tested masks during singing activities using a questionnaire. RESULTS Concerning the median distances of dispersion, all masks were able to decrease the impulse dispersion of the aerosols to the front. In contrast, the dispersion to the sides and to the top was increased. The evaluation revealed that most of the subjects would reject performing a concert with any of the masks. CONCLUSION Although, the results exhibit that the tested masks could be able to reduce the radius of aerosol expulsion for virus-laden aerosol particles, there are more improvements necessary to enable the practical implementations for professional singing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Echternach
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Germany.
| | - Laila Ava Hermann
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Germany
| | - Sophia Gantner
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Germany
| | - Bogac Tur
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head & Neck Surgery, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Gregor Peters
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head & Neck Surgery, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Caroline Westphalen
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Germany
| | - Tobias Benthaus
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Germany
| | - Marie Köberlein
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Germany
| | - Liudmila Kuranova
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Germany
| | - Michael Döllinger
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head & Neck Surgery, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Stefan Kniesburges
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head & Neck Surgery, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
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Schmitt J, Wang J. A critical review on the role of leakages in the facemask protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection with consideration of vaccination and virus variants. Indoor Air 2022; 32:e13127. [PMID: 36305058 PMCID: PMC9828278 DOI: 10.1111/ina.13127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 09/18/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The protection provided by facemasks has been extensively investigated since the beginning of the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak, focusing mostly on the filtration efficiency of filter media for filtering face pieces (FFP), surgical masks, and cloth masks. However, faceseal leakage is a major contributor to the number of potentially infectious airborne droplets entering the respiratory system of a susceptible individual. The identification of leaking spots and the quantification of leaking flows are crucial to estimate the protection provided by facemasks. This study presents a critical review on the measurement and calculation of facemask leakages and a quantitative analysis of their role in the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection. It shows that the pairing between the mask dimensions and the wearer's face is essential to improve protection efficiency, especially for FFP2 masks, and summarizes the most common leaking spots at the interface between the mask and the wearer's face. Leakage is a crucial factor in the calculation of the protection provided by facemasks and outweighs the filtration performances. The fit factors measured among mask users were summarized for different types of face protection. The reviewed data were integrated into a computational model to compare the mitigation impact of facemasks with vaccination with consideration of new variants of SARS-CoV-2. Combining a high adoption rate of facemasks and a high vaccination rate is crucial to efficiently control the spread of highly infectious variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Schmitt
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering, ETH ZurichInstitute of Environmental EngineeringZurichSwitzerland
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, EmpaSwiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and TechnologyDubendorfSwitzerland
| | - Jing Wang
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering, ETH ZurichInstitute of Environmental EngineeringZurichSwitzerland
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, EmpaSwiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and TechnologyDubendorfSwitzerland
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Köberlein MC, Hermann L, Gantner S, Tur B, Westphalen C, Kuranova L, Döllinger M, Kniesburges S, Kruse SA, Echternach M. The Effect of Water Resistance Therapy on the Impulse Dispersion of Aerosols During Sustained Phonation. J Voice 2022:S0892-1997(22)00153-9. [PMID: 35803772 PMCID: PMC9256517 DOI: 10.1016/j.jvoice.2022.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Group singing has been associated with higher transmission risks via exhaled and spread aerosols in the CoVID19 pandemic. For this reason, many musical activities, such as rehearsals and lessons, but also voice therapy sessions, have been restricted in many countries. Consequently, transmission risks and pathways have been studied, such as aerosol amounts generated by exhalation tasks, convectional flows in rooms, or the impulse dispersion of different kinds of phonation. The use of water resistance exercises such as those utilizing LAX VOX®, are common in voice lessons and as vocal warm-ups. With this context, this study investigates the impulse dispersion characteristics of aerosols during a voiced water resistance exercise in comparison to normal singing. METHODS Twelve professional singers (six male, six female) were asked to phonate a stable pitch through a silicone tube into a bottle filled with water, holding the end of the tube 5 cm below the surface. Before performing the tasks, the singers inhaled the vapor consisting of 0.5 L base liquid from an e-cigarette. The exhaled gas cloud coming out of the bottle was recorded in all three spatial directions and the dispersion was measured as a function of time. RESULTS At the end of the phonation task, the median distance to the front was 0.55 m and the median of the lateral expansion of the cloud was 0.89 m, the maximum to the front reached 0.88 m, and the maximum of lateral expansion 1.05 m. For the upwards direction of the clouds a median of 1.00 m and a maximum of 1.34 m from the mouth were measured. Three seconds after the end of the task, the medians were declining. CONCLUSION The exhaled aerosol cloud can expand despite the obstacle of the water when using LAX VOX® during phonation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Christine Köberlein
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany.
| | - Laila Hermann
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Sophia Gantner
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Bogac Tur
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head & Neck Surgery, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Caroline Westphalen
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Liudmila Kuranova
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Michael Döllinger
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head & Neck Surgery, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Stefan Kniesburges
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head & Neck Surgery, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | | | - Matthias Echternach
- Division of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
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Veltrup R, Kniesburges S, Döllinger M, Falk S, Mueller SK. Evaluation of Respiratory Particle Emission during Otorhinolaryngological Procedures in the Context of the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic. Diagnostics (Basel) 2022; 12:diagnostics12071603. [PMID: 35885507 PMCID: PMC9315468 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics12071603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 06/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the risk of infection by routine medical examination is important for the protection of the medical personnel. In this study we investigated respiratory particles emitted by patients during routine otolaryngologic procedures and assessed the risks for the performing physician. We developed two experimental setups to measure aerosol and droplet emission during rigid/flexible laryngoscopy, rhinoscopy, pharyngoscopy, otoscopy, sonography and patient interview for subjects with and without masks. A high-speed-camera setup was used to detect ballistic droplets (approx. > 100 µm) and an aerosol-particle-sizer was used to detect aerosol particles in the range of 0.3 µm to 10 µm. Aerosol particle counts were highly increased for coughing and slightly increased for heavy breathing in subjects without masks. The highest aerosol particle counts occurred during rigid laryngoscopy. During laryngoscopy and rhinoscopy, the examiner was exposed to increased particle emission due to close proximity to the patient’s face and provoked events such as coughing. However, even during sonography or otoscopy without a mask, aerosol particles were expelled close to the examiner. The physician’s exposure to respiratory particles can be reduced by deliberate choice of examination technique depending on medical indication and the use of appropriate equipment for the examiners and the patients (e.g., FFP2 masks for both).
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Bauer K, Hardege R, Neumann S, Schwarze R, Fuchs M, Heinrich Pieper L. How Safe is Singing Under Pandemic Conditions? - CO 2-Measurements as Simple Method for Risk Estimation During Choir Rehearsals. J Voice 2022:S0892-1997(22)00136-9. [PMID: 35667988 DOI: 10.1016/j.jvoice.2022.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Revised: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has forced choirs to pause or at least to restrict rehearsals and concerts. Nevertheless, an uncertainty about the risks of infection while singing remains, especially with regard to distances, duration of singing, number of singers and their positions in the room, size of the room as well as ventilation strategies. Based on the assumption that CO2 is a suitable indicator for the exhaled aerosols in a room, it is the aim of this study to deduce recommendations for a choir rehearsal with a minimum risk of infection. METHODS During two choir rehearsals in a typical, nonventilated classroom, we installed 30 CO2 sensors, which allow spatial and temporal evaluation of the CO2 dispersion during singing. Various singing and ventilation phases were applied and the rates of CO2 increase during singing as well as its decrease during ventilation phases were evaluated and compared for different scenarios. RESULTS The measurements reveal a linear relation between the duration of singing, size of the room and number of persons. For our size of the room of 200 m3 the average CO2 increase is 1.83 ppm/min per person. Masks or pure breathing without singing do - in contrast to aerosol dispersion - not influence the rate of CO2 increase. CO2 disperses fast and homogeneously on horizontal planes. However, a vertical layering with a maximum CO2 concentration is observed near the ceiling. Shock ventilation shows the largest CO2 decrease within the first 5 min, after 10 min of ventilation the outside base concentration of 400 ppm is reached again. CONCLUSION The evaluated relations allow to calculate safe singing times for a defined number of singers and size of the room until a critical threshold of 800 ppm is reached. Furthermore, in order to monitor the actual CO2 concentration during choir rehearsal, just one CO2 sensor is representative for the air quality and CO2 concentration of the whole room and thus considered sufficient. For an early warning, it should be installed near the ceiling. Direct singing into a sensor should be avoided. A ventilation time of just 5 min is recommended which represents a compromise between strong CO2 reduction and still sufficient room temperature during winter time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Bauer
- Institute of Mechanics and Fluid Dynamics, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg 09599, Germany.
| | - Robert Hardege
- Institute of Mechanics and Fluid Dynamics, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg 09599, Germany
| | - Sebastian Neumann
- Institute of Mechanics and Fluid Dynamics, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg 09599, Germany
| | - Rüdiger Schwarze
- Institute of Mechanics and Fluid Dynamics, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg 09599, Germany
| | - Michael Fuchs
- Division of Phoniatrics and Audiology, University of Leipzig, Liebigstrasse 10-14, Leipzig 04103, Germany; Institute for Musicians' Medicine, University of Leipzig, Liebigstrasse 10-14, Leipzig 04103, Germany
| | - Lennart Heinrich Pieper
- Division of Phoniatrics and Audiology, University of Leipzig, Liebigstrasse 10-14, Leipzig 04103, Germany; Institute for Musicians' Medicine, University of Leipzig, Liebigstrasse 10-14, Leipzig 04103, Germany
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Soriano JB, Hopkinson NS. Sing out for COPD! Eur Respir J 2022; 59:59/5/2102961. [PMID: 35589115 DOI: 10.1183/13993003.02961-2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joan B Soriano
- Servicio de Neumología, Hospital Universitario de la Princesa, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain .,Centro de Investigación en Red de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
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