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Diao X, Haveman N, Califar B, Dong X, Prentice B, Paul AL, Ferl RJ. Spaceflight impacts xyloglucan oligosaccharide abundance in Arabidopsis thaliana root cell walls. Life Sci Space Res (Amst) 2024; 41:110-118. [PMID: 38670637 DOI: 10.1016/j.lssr.2024.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 02/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
Over the course of more than a decade, space biology investigations have consistently indicated that cell wall remodeling occurs in a variety of spaceflight-grown plants. Here, we describe a mass spectrometric method to study the fundamental composition of xyloglucan, the most abundant hemicellulose in dicot cell walls, in space-grown plants. Four representative Arabidopsis root samples, from a previously conducted spaceflight experiment - Advanced Plant EXperiment - 04 (APEX-04), were used to investigate changes in xyloglucan oligosaccharides abundances in spaceflight-grown plants compared to ground controls. In situ localized enzymatic digestions and surface sampling mass spectrometry analysis provided spatial resolution of the changes in xyloglucan oligosaccharides abundances. Overall, the results showed that oligosaccharide XXLG/XLXG and XXFG branching patterns were more abundant in the lateral roots of spaceflight-grown plants, while XXXG, XLFG, and XLFG/XLFG were more abundant in the lateral roots of ground control plants. In the primary roots, XXFG had a higher abundance in ground controls than in spaceflight plants. This methodology of analyzing the basic components of the cell wall in this paper highlights two important findings. First, that are differences in the composition of xyloglucan oligosaccharides in spaceflight root cell walls compared to ground controls and, second, most of these differences are observed in the lateral roots. Thus, the methodology described in this paper provides insights into spaceflight cell wall modifications for future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xizheng Diao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, 214 Leigh Hall, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Natasha Haveman
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, 2550 Hull Road, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Brandon Califar
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, 2550 Hull Road, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Xiaoru Dong
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Florida, 2004 Mowry Road, Gainesville, FL, 32603, USA
| | - Boone Prentice
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, 214 Leigh Hall, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Anna-Lisa Paul
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, 2550 Hull Road, Gainesville, FL, USA; Interdisciplinary Center for Biotechnology Research, University of Florida, 2033 Mowry Road, Gainesville, FL, USA.
| | - Robert J Ferl
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, 2550 Hull Road, Gainesville, FL, USA; University of Florida Office of Research, University of Florida, 207 Grinter Hall, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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Bowlby B. Extraterrestrial agriculture: plant cultivation in space. Biotechniques 2024; 76:169-173. [PMID: 38602376 DOI: 10.2144/btn-2024-0033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/12/2024] Open
Abstract
[Formula: see text] Researchers are using various techniques and technologies to study how plants grow in extraterrestrial conditions with the hopes of sustaining longer missions for exploring deep space as well as being able to one day cultivate crops on other planets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice Bowlby
- Expert Publishing Science Ltd, Unitec House, 2 Albert Place, London, N3 1QB, UK
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Zhou M, Riva A, Gauthier MPL, Kladde MP, Ferl RJ, Paul AL. Single-molecule long-read methylation profiling reveals regional DNA methylation regulated by Elongator Complex Subunit 2 in Arabidopsis roots experiencing spaceflight. Biol Direct 2024; 19:33. [PMID: 38689301 PMCID: PMC11059628 DOI: 10.1186/s13062-024-00476-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Advanced Plant Experiment-04 - Epigenetic Expression (APEX-04-EpEx) experiment onboard the International Space Station examined the spaceflight-altered cytosine methylation in two genetic lines of Arabidopsis thaliana, wild-type Col-0 and the mutant elp2-5, which is deficient in an epigenetic regulator Elongator Complex Subunit 2 (ELP2). Whole-genome bisulfite sequencing (WGBS) revealed distinct spaceflight associated methylation differences, presenting the need to explore specific space-altered methylation at single-molecule resolution to associate specific changes over large regions of spaceflight related genes. To date, tools of multiplexed targeted DNA methylation sequencing remain limited for plant genomes. RESULTS To provide methylation data at single-molecule resolution, Flap-enabled next-generation capture (FENGC), a novel targeted multiplexed DNA capture and enrichment technique allowing cleavage at any specified sites, was applied to survey spaceflight-altered DNA methylation in genic regions of interest. The FENGC capture panel contained 108 targets ranging from 509 to 704 nt within the promoter or gene body regions of gene targets derived from spaceflight whole-genome data sets. In addition to genes with significant changes in expression and average methylation levels between spaceflight and ground control, targets with space-altered distributions of the proportion of methylated cytosines per molecule were identified. Moreover, trends of co-methylation of different cytosine contexts were exhibited in the same DNA molecules. We further identified significant DNA methylation changes in three previously biological process-unknown genes, and loss-of-function mutants of two of these genes (named as EMO1 and EMO2 for ELP2-regulated Methylation in Orbit 1 and 2) showed enhanced root growth rate. CONCLUSIONS FENGC simplifies and reduces the cost of multiplexed, targeted, single-molecule profiling of methylation in plants, providing additional resolution along each DNA molecule that is not seen in population-based short-read data such as WGBS. This case study has revealed spaceflight-altered regional modification of cytosine methylation occurring within single DNA molecules of cell subpopulations, which were not identified by WGBS. The single-molecule survey by FENGC can lead to identification of novel functional genes. The newly identified EMO1 and EMO2 are root growth regulators which may be epigenetically involved in plant adaptation to spaceflight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingqi Zhou
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, 2550 Hull Road, Fifield Hall, 32611, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Alberto Riva
- Interdisciplinary Center for Biotechnology Research, University of Florida, 2033 Mowry Road, 32610, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Marie-Pierre L Gauthier
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida, 2033 Mowry Rd, 32610, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Michael P Kladde
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida, 2033 Mowry Rd, 32610, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Robert J Ferl
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, 2550 Hull Road, Fifield Hall, 32611, Gainesville, FL, USA.
- UF Research, University of Florida, 1523 Union Rd, Grinter Hall, 32611, Gainesville, FL, USA.
| | - Anna-Lisa Paul
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, 2550 Hull Road, Fifield Hall, 32611, Gainesville, FL, USA.
- Interdisciplinary Center for Biotechnology Research, University of Florida, 2033 Mowry Road, 32610, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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Land ES, Sheppard J, Doherty CJ, Perera IY. Conserved plant transcriptional responses to microgravity from two consecutive spaceflight experiments. Front Plant Sci 2024; 14:1308713. [PMID: 38259952 PMCID: PMC10800490 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1308713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Introduction Understanding how plants adapt to the space environment is essential, as plants will be a valuable component of long duration space missions. Several spaceflight experiments have focused on transcriptional profiling as a means of understanding plant adaptation to microgravity. However, there is limited overlap between results from different experiments. Differences in experimental conditions and hardware make it difficult to find a consistent response across experiments and to distinguish the primary effects of microgravity from other spaceflight effects. Methods Plant Signaling (PS) and Plant RNA Regulation (PRR) were two separate spaceflight experiments conducted on the International Space Station utilizing the European Modular Cultivation System (EMCS). The EMCS provided a lighted environment for plant growth with centrifugal capabilities providing an onboard 1 g control. Results and discussion An RNA-Seq analysis of shoot samples from PS and PRR revealed a significant overlap of genes differentially expressed in microgravity between the two experiments. Relative to onboard 1 g controls, genes involved in transcriptional regulation, shoot development, and response to auxin and light were upregulated in microgravity in both experiments. Conversely, genes involved in defense response, abiotic stress, Ca++ signaling, and cell wall modification were commonly downregulated in both datasets. The downregulation of stress responses in microgravity in these two experiments is interesting as these pathways have been previously observed as upregulated in spaceflight compared to ground controls. Similarly, we have observed many stress response genes to be upregulated in the 1 g onboard control compared to ground reference controls; however these genes were specifically downregulated in microgravity. In addition, we analyzed the sRNA landscape of the 1 g and microgravity (μ g) shoot samples from PRR. We identified three miRNAs (miR319c, miR398b, and miR8683) which were upregulated in microgravity, while several of their corresponding target genes were found to be downregulated in microgravity. Interestingly, the downregulated target genes are enriched in those encoding chloroplast-localized enzymes and proteins. These results uncover microgravity unique transcriptional changes and highlight the validity and importance of an onboard 1 g control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric S. Land
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - James Sheppard
- Department of Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Colleen J. Doherty
- Department of Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Imara Y. Perera
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
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Gupta P, Elser J, Hooks E, D’Eustachio P, Jaiswal P, Naithani S. Plant Reactome Knowledgebase: empowering plant pathway exploration and OMICS data analysis. Nucleic Acids Res 2024; 52:D1538-D1547. [PMID: 37986220 PMCID: PMC10767815 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkad1052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Plant Reactome (https://plantreactome.gramene.org) is a freely accessible, comprehensive plant pathway knowledgebase. It provides curated reference pathways from rice (Oryza sativa) and gene-orthology-based pathway projections to 129 additional species, spanning single-cell photoautotrophs, non-vascular plants, and higher plants, thus encompassing a wide-ranging taxonomic diversity. Currently, Plant Reactome houses a collection of 339 reference pathways, covering metabolic and transport pathways, hormone signaling, genetic regulations of developmental processes, and intricate transcriptional networks that orchestrate a plant's response to abiotic and biotic stimuli. Beyond being a mere repository, Plant Reactome serves as a dynamic data discovery platform. Users can analyze and visualize omics data, such as gene expression, gene-gene interaction, proteome, and metabolome data, all within the rich context of plant pathways. Plant Reactome is dedicated to fostering data interoperability, upholding global data standards, and embracing the tenets of the Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Re-usable (FAIR) data policy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parul Gupta
- Department of Botany & Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Justin Elser
- Department of Botany & Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Elizabeth Hooks
- Department of Botany & Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | | | - Pankaj Jaiswal
- Department of Botany & Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Sushma Naithani
- Department of Botany & Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
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Ferl RJ, Zhou M, Strickland HF, Haveman NJ, Callaham JB, Bandla S, Ambriz D, Paul AL. Transcriptomic dynamics in the transition from ground to space are revealed by Virgin Galactic human-tended suborbital spaceflight. NPJ Microgravity 2023; 9:95. [PMID: 38123588 PMCID: PMC10733374 DOI: 10.1038/s41526-023-00340-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The Virgin Galactic Unity 22 mission conducted the first astronaut-manipulated suborbital spaceflight experiment. The experiment examined the operationalization of Kennedy Space Center Fixation Tubes (KFTs) as a generalizable approach to preserving biology at various phases of suborbital flight. The biology chosen for this experiment was Arabidopsis thaliana, ecotype Col-0, because of the plant history of spaceflight experimentation within KFTs and wealth of comparative data from orbital experiments. KFTs were deployed as a wearable device, a leg pouch attached to the astronaut, which proved to be operationally effective during the course of the flight. Data from the inflight samples indicated that the microgravity period of the flight elicited the strongest transcriptomic responses as measured by the number of genes showing differential expression. Genes related to reactive oxygen species and stress, as well as genes associated with orbital spaceflight, were highly represented among the suborbital gene expression profile. In addition, gene families largely unaffected in orbital spaceflight were diversely regulated in suborbital flight, including stress-responsive transcription factors. The human-tended suborbital experiment demonstrated the operational effectiveness of the KFTs in suborbital flight and suggests that rapid transcriptomic responses are a part of the temporal dynamics at the beginning of physiological adaptation to spaceflight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Ferl
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, 2550 Hull Road, Fifield Hall, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA.
- UF Research, University of Florida, 1523 Union Rd, Grinter Hall, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA.
| | - Mingqi Zhou
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, 2550 Hull Road, Fifield Hall, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Hunter F Strickland
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, 2550 Hull Road, Fifield Hall, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Florida, 2550 Hull Road, Fifield Hall, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Natasha J Haveman
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, 2550 Hull Road, Fifield Hall, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Jordan B Callaham
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, 2550 Hull Road, Fifield Hall, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Sirisha Bandla
- Virgin Galactic, 1700 Flight Way, 3rd Floor, Tustin, CA, 92782, USA
| | - Daniel Ambriz
- Virgin Galactic, 1700 Flight Way, 3rd Floor, Tustin, CA, 92782, USA
| | - Anna-Lisa Paul
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, 2550 Hull Road, Fifield Hall, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA.
- Interdisciplinary Center for Biotechnology Research, University of Florida, 2033 Mowry Road, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
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Olanrewaju GO, Kruse CPS, Wyatt SE. Functional Meta-Analysis of the Proteomic Responses of Arabidopsis Seedlings to the Spaceflight Environment Reveals Multi-Dimensional Sources of Variability across Spaceflight Experiments. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:14425. [PMID: 37833871 PMCID: PMC10573023 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241914425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The human quest for sustainable habitation of extraterrestrial environments necessitates a robust understanding of life's adaptability to the unique conditions of spaceflight. This study provides a comprehensive proteomic dissection of the Arabidopsis plant's responses to the spaceflight environment through a meta-analysis of proteomics data from four separate spaceflight experiments conducted on the International Space Station (ISS) in different hardware configurations. Raw proteomics LC/MS spectra were analyzed for differential expression in MaxQuant and Perseus software. The analysis of dissimilarities among the datasets reveals the multidimensional nature of plant proteomic responses to spaceflight, impacted by variables such as spaceflight hardware, seedling age, lighting conditions, and proteomic quantification techniques. By contrasting datasets that varied in light exposure, we elucidated proteins involved in photomorphogenesis and skotomorphogenesis in plant spaceflight responses. Additionally, with data from an onboard 1 g control experiment, we isolated proteins that specifically respond to the microgravity environment and those that respond to other spaceflight conditions. This study identified proteins and associated metabolic pathways that are consistently impacted across the datasets. Notably, these shared proteins were associated with critical metabolic functions, including carbon metabolism, glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, and amino acid biosynthesis, underscoring their potential significance in Arabidopsis' spaceflight adaptation mechanisms and informing strategies for successful space farming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gbolaga O. Olanrewaju
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, USA;
- Department of Environmental and Plant Biology, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, USA
| | - Colin P. S. Kruse
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Bioscience Division, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA;
| | - Sarah E. Wyatt
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, USA;
- Department of Environmental and Plant Biology, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, USA
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Thessen AE, Cooper L, Swetnam TL, Hegde H, Reese J, Elser J, Jaiswal P. Using knowledge graphs to infer gene expression in plants. Front Artif Intell 2023; 6:1201002. [PMID: 37384147 PMCID: PMC10298150 DOI: 10.3389/frai.2023.1201002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Climate change is already affecting ecosystems around the world and forcing us to adapt to meet societal needs. The speed with which climate change is progressing necessitates a massive scaling up of the number of species with understood genotype-environment-phenotype (G×E×P) dynamics in order to increase ecosystem and agriculture resilience. An important part of predicting phenotype is understanding the complex gene regulatory networks present in organisms. Previous work has demonstrated that knowledge about one species can be applied to another using ontologically-supported knowledge bases that exploit homologous structures and homologous genes. These types of structures that can apply knowledge about one species to another have the potential to enable the massive scaling up that is needed through in silico experimentation. Methods We developed one such structure, a knowledge graph (KG) using information from Planteome and the EMBL-EBI Expression Atlas that connects gene expression, molecular interactions, functions, and pathways to homology-based gene annotations. Our preliminary analysis uses data from gene expression studies in Arabidopsis thaliana and Populus trichocarpa plants exposed to drought conditions. Results A graph query identified 16 pairs of homologous genes in these two taxa, some of which show opposite patterns of gene expression in response to drought. As expected, analysis of the upstream cis-regulatory region of these genes revealed that homologs with similar expression behavior had conserved cis-regulatory regions and potential interaction with similar trans-elements, unlike homologs that changed their expression in opposite ways. Discussion This suggests that even though the homologous pairs share common ancestry and functional roles, predicting expression and phenotype through homology inference needs careful consideration of integrating cis and trans-regulatory components in the curated and inferred knowledge graph.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne E. Thessen
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Laurel Cooper
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
| | - Tyson L. Swetnam
- BIO5 Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Harshad Hegde
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Berkeley Lab (DOE), Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Justin Reese
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Berkeley Lab (DOE), Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Justin Elser
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
| | - Pankaj Jaiswal
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
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Kuya N, Nishijima R, Kitomi Y, Kawakatsu T, Uga Y. Transcriptome profiles of rice roots under simulated microgravity conditions and following gravistimulation. Front Plant Sci 2023; 14:1193042. [PMID: 37360733 PMCID: PMC10288856 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1193042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Root system architecture affects the efficient uptake of water and nutrients in plants. The root growth angle, which is a critical component in determining root system architecture, is affected by root gravitropism; however, the mechanism of root gravitropism in rice remains largely unknown. In this study, we conducted a time-course transcriptome analysis of rice roots under conditions of simulated microgravity using a three-dimensional clinostat and following gravistimulation to detect candidate genes associated with the gravitropic response. We found that HEAT SHOCK PROTEIN (HSP) genes, which are involved in the regulation of auxin transport, were preferentially up-regulated during simulated microgravity conditions and rapidly down-regulated by gravistimulation. We also found that the transcription factor HEAT STRESS TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR A2s (HSFA2s) and HSFB2s, showed the similar expression patterns with the HSPs. A co-expression network analysis and an in silico motif search within the upstream regions of the co-expressed genes revealed possible transcriptional control of HSPs by HSFs. Because HSFA2s are transcriptional activators, whereas HSFB2s are transcriptional repressors, the results suggest that the gene regulatory networks governed by HSFs modulate the gravitropic response through transcriptional control of HSPs in rice roots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriyuki Kuya
- Institute of Crop Science, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Ryo Nishijima
- Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Yuka Kitomi
- Institute of Crop Science, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Taiji Kawakatsu
- Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Yusaku Uga
- Institute of Crop Science, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Japan
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