Subunit composition of NDH-1 complexes of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803: identification of two new ndh gene products with nuclear-encoded homologues in the chloroplast Ndh complex

NDH-1L with a truncated NdhM subunit is unstable under stress conditions in cyanobacteria

Cyanobacterial NdhM, an oxygenic photosynthesis-specific NDH-1 subunit, has been found to be essential for the formation of a large complex of NDH-1 (NDH-1L). The cryo-electron microscopic (cryo-EM) structure of NdhM from Thermosynechococcus elongatus showed that the N-terminus of NdhM contains three β-sheets, while two α-helixes are present in the middle and C-terminal part of NdhM. Here, we obtained a mutant of the unicellular cyanobacterium Synechocystis 6803 expressing a C-terminal truncated NdhM subunit designated NdhMΔC. Accumulation and activity of NDH-1 were not affected in NdhMΔC under normal growth conditions. However, the NDH-1 complex with truncated NdhM is unstable under stress. Immunoblot analyses showed that the assembly process of the cyanobacterial NDH-1L hydrophilic arm was not affected in the NdhMΔC mutant even under high temperature. Thus, our results indicate that NdhM can bind to the NDH-1 complex without its C-terminal α-helix, but the interaction is weakened. NDH-1L with truncated NdhM is more prone to dissociation, and this is particularly evident under stress conditions.

Cyanobacterial NDH-1 Complexes

Light reaction of photosynthesis is efficiently driven by protein complexes arranged in an orderly in the thylakoid membrane. As the 5th complex, NAD(P)H dehydrogenase complex (NDH-1) is involved in cyclic electron flow around photosystem I to protect plants against environmental stresses for efficient photosynthesis. In addition, two kinds of NDH-1 complexes participate in CO₂ uptake for CO₂ concentration in cyanobacteria. In recent years, great progress has been made in the understanding of the assembly and the structure of NDH-1. However, the regulatory mechanism of NDH-1 in photosynthesis remains largely unknown. Therefore, understanding the regulatory mechanism of NDH-1 is of great significance to reveal the mechanism of efficient photosynthesis. In this mini-review, the author introduces current progress in the research of cyanobacterial NDH-1. Finally, the author summarizes the possible regulatory mechanism of cyanobacterial NDH-1 in photosynthesis and discusses the research prospect.

Turnip mosaic virus impairs perinuclear chloroplast clustering to facilitate viral infection

Chloroplasts play crucial roles in plant defence against viral infection. We now report that chloroplast NADH dehydrogenase-like (NDH) complex M subunit gene (NdhM) was first up-regulated and then down-regulated in turnip mosaic virus (TuMV)-infected N. benthamiana. NbNdhM-silenced plants were more susceptible to TuMV, whereas overexpression of NbNdhM inhibited TuMV accumulation. Overexpression of NbNdhM significantly induced the clustering of chloroplasts around the nuclei and disturbing this clustering facilitated TuMV infection, suggesting that the clustering mediated by NbNdhM is a defence against TuMV. It was then shown that NbNdhM interacted with TuMV VPg, and that the NdhMs of different plant species interacted with the proteins of different viruses, implying that NdhM may be a common target of viruses. In the presence of TuMV VPg, NbNdhM, which is normally localized in the nucleus, chloroplasts, cell periphery and chloroplast stromules, colocalized with VPg at the nucleus and nucleolus, with significantly increased nuclear accumulation, while NbNdhM-mediated chloroplast clustering was significantly impaired. This study therefore indicates that NbNdhM has a defensive role in TuMV infection probably by inducing the perinuclear clustering of chloroplasts, and that the localization of NbNdhM is altered by its interaction with TuMV VPg in a way that promotes virus infection.

Functional basis of electron transport within photosynthetic complex I

Photosynthesis and respiration rely upon a proton gradient to produce ATP. In photosynthesis, the Respiratory Complex I homologue, Photosynthetic Complex I (PS-CI) is proposed to couple ferredoxin oxidation and plastoquinone reduction to proton pumping across thylakoid membranes. However, little is known about the PS-CI molecular mechanism and attempts to understand its function have previously been frustrated by its large size and high lability. Here, we overcome these challenges by pushing the limits in sample size and spectroscopic sensitivity, to determine arguably the most important property of any electron transport enzyme - the reduction potentials of its cofactors, in this case the iron-sulphur clusters of PS-CI (N0, N1 and N2), and unambiguously assign them to the structure using double electron-electron resonance. We have thus determined the bioenergetics of the electron transfer relay and provide insight into the mechanism of PS-CI, laying the foundations for understanding of how this important bioenergetic complex functions.

Recent advances on the structure and function of NDH-1: The complex I of oxygenic photosynthesis

Photosynthetic NADH dehydrogenase-like complex type-1 (a.k.a, NDH, NDH-1, or NDH-1L) is a multi-subunit, membrane-bound oxidoreductase related to the respiratory complex I. Although originally discovered 30 years ago, a number of recent advances have revealed significant insight into the structure, function, and physiology of NDH-1. Here, we highlight progress in understanding the function of NDH-1 in the photosynthetic light reactions of both cyanobacteria and chloroplasts from biochemical and structural perspectives. We further examine the cyanobacterial-specific forms of NDH-1 that possess vectorial carbonic anhydrase (vCA) activity and function in the CO₂-concentrating mechanism (CCM). We compare the proposed mechanism for the cyanobacterial NDH-1 vCA-activity to that of the DAB (DABs accumulates bicarbonate) complex, another putative vCA. Finally, we discuss both new and remaining questions pertaining to the mechanisms of NDH-1 complexes in light of these recent advances.

Structural basis for electron transport mechanism of complex I-like photosynthetic NAD(P)H dehydrogenase

NAD(P)H dehydrogenase-like (NDH) complex NDH-1L of cyanobacteria plays a crucial role in cyclic electron flow (CEF) around photosystem I and respiration processes. NDH-1L couples the electron transport from ferredoxin (Fd) to plastoquinone (PQ) and proton pumping from cytoplasm to the lumen that drives the ATP production. NDH-1L-dependent CEF increases the ATP/NADPH ratio, and is therefore pivotal for oxygenic phototrophs to function under stress. Here we report two structures of NDH-1L from Thermosynechococcus elongatus BP-1, in complex with one Fd and an endogenous PQ, respectively. Our structures represent the complete model of cyanobacterial NDH-1L, revealing the binding manner of NDH-1L with Fd and PQ, as well as the structural elements crucial for proper functioning of the NDH-1L complex. Together, our data provides deep insights into the electron transport from Fd to PQ, and its coupling with proton translocation in NDH-1L.

NAD(P)H dehydrogenase-like complex NDH-1L couples the electron transport from ferredoxin (Fd) to plastoquinone (PQ) and proton pumping from cytoplasm to the lumen. Here authors report two structures of NDH-1L from Thermosynechococcus elongatus BP-1, in complex with one Fd and an endogenous PQ, respectively.

Ssl3451 is Important for Accumulation of NDH-1 Assembly Intermediates in the Cytoplasm of Synechocystis sp. Strain PCC 6803

Two mutants sensitive to high light for growth and impaired in NDH-1 activity were isolated from a transposon-tagged library of Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803. Both mutants were tagged in the ssl3451 gene encoding a hypothetical protein, which shares a significant homology with the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) CHLORORESPIRATORY REDUCTION 42 (CRR42). In Arabidopsis, CRR42 associates only with an NDH-1 hydrophilic arm assembly intermediate (NAI) of about 400 kDa (NAI400), one of total three NAIs (NAI800, NAI500 and NAI400), and its deletion has little, if any, effect on accumulation of any NAIs in the stroma. In comparison, the ssl3451 product was localized mainly in the cytoplasm and associates with two NAIs of about 300 kDa (NAI300) and 130 kDa (NAI130). Deletion of Ssl3451 reduced the abundance of the NAI300 complex to levels no longer visible on gels and of the NAI130 complex to a low level, thereby impeding the assembly process of NDH-1 hydrophilic arm. Further, Ssl3451 interacts with another assembly factor Ssl3829 and they have a similar effect on accumulation of NAIs and NdhI maturation factor Slr1097 in the cytoplasm. We thus propose that Ssl3451 plays an important role in accumulation of the NAI300 and NAI130 complexes in the cytoplasm via its interacting protein Ssl3829.

Molecular dynamics and structural models of the cyanobacterial NDH-1 complex

NDH-1 is a gigantic redox-driven proton pump linked with respiration and cyclic electron flow in cyanobacterial cells. Based on experimentally resolved X-ray and cryo-EM structures of the respiratory complex I, we derive here molecular models of two isoforms of the cyanobacterial NDH-1 complex involved in redox-driven proton pumping (NDH-1L) and CO2-fixation (NDH-1MS). Our models show distinct structural and dynamic similarities to the core architecture of the bacterial and mammalian respiratory complex I. We identify putative plastoquinone-binding sites that are coupled by an electrostatic wire to the proton pumping elements in the membrane domain of the enzyme. Molecular simulations suggest that the NDH-1L isoform undergoes large-scale hydration changes that support proton-pumping within antiporter-like subunits, whereas the terminal subunit of the NDH-1MS isoform lacks such structural motifs. Our work provides a putative molecular blueprint for the complex I-analogue in the photosynthetic energy transduction machinery and demonstrates that general mechanistic features of the long-range proton-pumping machinery are evolutionary conserved in the complex I-superfamily.

Structural adaptations of photosynthetic complex I enable ferredoxin-dependent electron transfer

Photosynthetic complex I enables cyclic electron flow around photosystem I, a regulatory mechanism for photosynthetic energy conversion. We report a 3.3-angstrom-resolution cryo-electron microscopy structure of photosynthetic complex I from the cyanobacterium Thermosynechococcus elongatus. The model reveals structural adaptations that facilitate binding and electron transfer from the photosynthetic electron carrier ferredoxin. By mimicking cyclic electron flow with isolated components in vitro, we demonstrate that ferredoxin directly mediates electron transfer between photosystem I and complex I, instead of using intermediates such as NADPH (the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate). A large rate constant for association of ferredoxin to complex I indicates efficient recognition, with the protein subunit NdhS being the key component in this process.

Isolation of Intact Thylakoid Membranes from Heterocysts of Filamentous, Nitrogen-Fixing Cyanobacteria

The isolation of thylakoid membranes, including intact membrane protein complexes, from heterocysts of filamentous cyanobacteria such as Nostoc punctiforme, is described. Protocols for BN-PAGE/SDS-PAGE 2-D electrophoresis are not included. However, the chapter ends with advisory notes on sample preparation for blue-native PAGE of thylakoid membrane proteins, which can then be used together with any standard protocol.

NdhV subunit regulates the activity of type-1 NAD(P)H dehydrogenase under high light conditions in cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

The cyanobacterial NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (NDH-1) complexes play crucial roles in variety of bioenergetic reactions. However, the regulative mechanism of NDH-1 under stressed conditions is still unclear. In this study, we detected that the NDH-1 activity is partially impaired, but the accumulation of NDH-1 complexes was little affected in the NdhV deleted mutant (ΔndhV) at low light in cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. ΔndhV grew normally at low light but slowly at high light under inorganic carbon limitation conditions (low pH or low CO2), meanwhile the activity of CO2 uptake was evidently lowered than wild type even at pH 8.0. The accumulation of NdhV in thylakoids strictly relies on the presence of the hydrophilic subcomplex of NDH-1. Furthermore, NdhV was co-located with hydrophilic subunits of NDH-1 loosely associated with the NDH-1L, NDH-1MS' and NDH-1M complexes. The level of the NdhV was significantly increased at high light and deletion of NdhV suppressed the up-regulation of NDH-1 activity, causing the lowered the photosynthetic oxygen evolution at pH 6.5 and high light. These data indicate that NdhV is an intrinsic subunit of hydrophilic subcomplex of NDH-1, required for efficient operation of cyclic electron transport around photosystem I and CO2 uptake at high lights.

Oscillation Kinetics of Post-illumination Increase in Chl Fluorescence in Cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC 6803

After termination of longer-illumination (more than 30 s), the wild type of Synechocystis PCC 6803 showed the oscillation kinetics of post-illumination increase in Chl fluorescence: a fast phase followed by one or two slow phases. Unlike the wild type, ndh-B defective mutant M55 did not show any post-illumination increase under the same conditions, indicating that not only the fast phase, but also the slow phases were related to the NDH-mediated cyclic electron flow around photosystem I (PS I) to plastoquinone (PQ). The fast phase was stimulated by dark incubation or in the presence of Calvin cycle inhibitor, iodoacetamide (IA) or cyclic photophosphorylation cofactor, phenazine methosulphate (PMS), implying the redox changes of PQ by electrons generated at PS I reduced side, probably NAD(P)H or ferredoxin (Fd). In contrast, the slow phases disappeared after dark starvation or in the presence of IA or PMS, and reappeared by longer re-illumination, suggesting that they are related to the redox changes of PQ by the electrons from the photoreductants produced in carbon assimilation process. Both the fast phase and slow phases were stimulated at high temperature and the slow phase was promoted by response to high concentration of NaCl. The mutant M55 without both phases could not survive under the stressed conditions.

NdhM Subunit Is Required for the Stability and the Function of NAD(P)H Dehydrogenase Complexes Involved in CO2 Uptake in Synechocystis sp. Strain PCC 6803

The cyanobacterial type I NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (NDH-1) complexes play a crucial role in a variety of bioenergetic reactions such as respiration, CO2 uptake, and cyclic electron transport around photosystem I. Two types of NDH-1 complexes, NDH-1MS and NDH-1MS', are involved in the CO2 uptake system. However, the composition and function of the complexes still remain largely unknown. Here, we found that deletion of ndhM caused inactivation of NDH-1-dependent cyclic electron transport around photosystem I and abolishment of CO2 uptake, resulting in a lethal phenotype under air CO2 condition. The mutation of NdhM abolished the accumulation of the hydrophilic subunits of the NDH-1, such as NdhH, NdhI, NdhJ, and NdhK, in the thylakoid membrane, resulting in disassembly of NDH-1MS and NDH-1MS' as well as NDH-1L. In contrast, the accumulation of the hydrophobic subunits was not affected in the absence of NdhM. In the cytoplasm, the NDH-1 subcomplex assembly intermediates including NdhH and NdhK were seriously affected in the ΔndhM mutant but not in the NdhI-deleted mutant ΔndhI. In vitro protein interaction analysis demonstrated that NdhM interacts with NdhK, NdhH, NdhI, and NdhJ but not with other hydrophilic subunits of the NDH-1 complex. These results suggest that NdhM localizes in the hydrophilic subcomplex of NDH-1 complexes as a core subunit and is essential for the function of NDH-1MS and NDH-1MS' involved in CO2 uptake in Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803.

NDH-1L interacts with ferredoxin via the subunit NdhS in Thermosynechococcus elongatus

The large size complex of cyanobacterial NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (NDH-1) complex (NDH-1L) plays crucial role in a variety of bioenergetic reactions such as respiration and cyclic electron flow around photosystem I. Although the complex has been isolated and identified, its biochemical function still remains to be clarified. Here, we highly purified the NDH-1L complex from the cells of Thermosynechococcus elongatus by Ni(2+) affinity chromatography and size-exclusion chromatography. The purified NDH-1L complex has an apparent total molecular mass of approximately 500 kDa. 14 known subunits were identified by mass spectrometry and immunoblotting, including the NdhS subunit containing ferredoxin (Fd)-docking site domain. Surface plasmon resonance measurement demonstrates that the NDH-1L complex could bind to Fd with the binding constant (K D) of 59 µM. Yeast two-hybrid system assay further confirmed the interaction of Fd with NdhS and indicated that NdhH is involved in the interaction. Our results provide direct biochemical evidence that the cyanobacterial NDH-1 complex catalyzes the electron transport from reduced Fd to plastoquinone via NdhS and NdhH.

Proteomic approaches in research of cyanobacterial photosynthesis

Oxygenic photosynthesis in cyanobacteria, algae, and plants is carried out by a fabulous pigment-protein machinery that is amazingly complicated in structure and function. Many different approaches have been undertaken to characterize the most important aspects of photosynthesis, and proteomics has become the essential component in this research. Here we describe various methods which have been used in proteomic research of cyanobacteria, and demonstrate how proteomics is implemented into on-going studies of photosynthesis in cyanobacterial cells.

Cyanobacterial hydrogenases and hydrogen metabolism revisited: recent progress and future prospects

Cyanobacteria have garnered interest as potential cell factories for hydrogen production. In conjunction with photosynthesis, these organisms can utilize inexpensive inorganic substrates and solar energy for simultaneous biosynthesis and hydrogen evolution. However, the hydrogen yield associated with these organisms remains far too low to compete with the existing chemical processes. Our limited understanding of the cellular hydrogen production pathway is a primary setback in the potential scale-up of this process. In this regard, the present review discusses the recent insight around ferredoxin/flavodoxin as the likely electron donor to the bidirectional Hox hydrogenase instead of the generally accepted NAD(P)H. This may have far reaching implications in powering solar driven hydrogen production. However, it is evident that a successful hydrogen-producing candidate would likely integrate enzymatic traits from different species. Engineering the [NiFe] hydrogenases for optimal catalytic efficiency or expression of a high turnover [FeFe] hydrogenase in these photo-autotrophs may facilitate the development of strains to reach target levels of biohydrogen production in cyanobacteria. The fundamental advancements achieved in these fields are also summarized in this review.

The NdhV subunit is required to stabilize the chloroplast NADH dehydrogenase-like complex in Arabidopsis

The chloroplast NADH dehydrogenase-like (NDH) complex is involved in cyclic electron transport around photosystem I (PSI) and chlororespiration. Although the NDH complex was discovered more than 20 years ago, its low abundance and fragile nature render it recalcitrant to analysis, and it is thought that some of its subunits remain to be identified. Here, we identified the NDH subunit NdhV that readily disassociates from the NDH complex in the presence of detergent, salt and alkaline solutions. The Arabidopsis ndhv mutant is partially defective in the accumulation of NDH subcomplex A (SubA) and SubE, resulting in impaired NDH activity. NdhV was mainly detected in the wild-type thylakoid membrane, and its accumulation in thylakoids strictly depended on the presence of the NDH complex. Quantitative immunoblot analysis revealed that NdhV and NdhN occur at close to equimolar concentrations. Furthermore, several NDH subunits were co-immunopurified with NdhV using a combination of chemical crosslinking and an affinity chromatography assay. These data indicate that NdhV is an intrinsic subunit of NDH. We found that NdhV did not directly affect NDH activity, but that NDH SubA and SubE were more rapidly degraded in ndhv than in the wild type under high-light treatment. We propose that NdhV is an NDH subunit that stabilizes this complex, especially under high-light conditions.

Solar powered biohydrogen production requires specific localization of the hydrogenase

Cyanobacteria contain a bidirectional [NiFe] hydrogenase which transiently produces hydrogen upon exposure of anoxic cells to light, potentially acting as a "valve" releasing excess electrons from the electron transport chain. However, its interaction with the photosynthetic electron transport chain remains unclear. By GFP-tagging the HoxF diaphorase subunit we show that the hydrogenase is thylakoid associated, comprising a population dispersed uniformly through the thylakoids and a subpopulation localized to discrete puncta in the distal thylakoid. Thylakoid localisation of both the HoxH and HoxY hydrogenase subunits is confirmed by immunogold electron microscopy. The diaphorase HoxE subunit is essential for recruitment to the dispersed thylakoid population, potentially anchoring the hydrogenase to the membrane, but aggregation to puncta occurs through a distinct HoxE-independent mechanism. Membrane association does not require NDH-1. Localization is dynamic on a scale of minutes, with anoxia and high light inducing a significant redistribution between these populations in favour of puncta. Since HoxE is essential for access to its electron donor, electron supply to the hydrogenase depends on a physiologically controlled localization, potentially offering a new avenue to enhance photosynthetic hydrogen production by exploiting localization/aggregation signals.

NdhP is an exclusive subunit of large complex of NADPH dehydrogenase essential to stabilize the complex in Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803

Two major complexes of NADPH dehydrogenase (NDH-1) have been identified in cyanobacteria. A large complex (NDH-1L) contains NdhD1 and NdhF1, which are absent in a medium size complex (NDH-1M). They play important roles in respiration, cyclic electron transport around photosystem I, and CO2 acquisition. Two mutants sensitive to high light for growth and impaired in NDH-1-mediated cyclic electron transfer were isolated from Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 transformed with a transposon-bearing library. Both mutants had a tag in sml0013 encoding NdhP, a single transmembrane small subunit of the NDH-1 complex. During prolonged incubation of the wild type thylakoid membrane with n-dodecyl β-d-maltoside (DM), about half of the NDH-1L was disassembled to NDH-1M and the rest decomposed completely without forming NDH-1M. In the ndhP deletion mutant (ΔndhP), disassembling of NDH-1L to NDH-1M occurred even on ice, and decomposition to a small piece occurred at room temperature much faster than in the wild type. Deletion of the C-terminal tail of NdhP gave the same result. The C terminus of NdhP was tagged by YFP-His6. Blue native gel electrophoresis of the DM-treated thylakoid membrane of this strain and Western analysis using the antibody against GFP revealed that NdhP-YFP-His6 was exclusively confined to NDH-1L. During prolonged incubation of the thylakoid membrane of the tagged strain with DM at room temperature, NDH-1L was partially disassembled to NDH-1M and the 160-kDa band containing NdhP-YFP-His6 and possibly NdhD1 and NdhF1. We therefore conclude that NdhP, especially its C-terminal tail, is essential to assemble NdhD1 and NdhF1 and stabilize the NDH-1L complex.

Toward a systems-level understanding of gene regulatory, protein interaction, and metabolic networks in cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria are essential primary producers in marine ecosystems, playing an important role in both carbon and nitrogen cycles. In the last decade, various genome sequencing and metagenomic projects have generated large amounts of genetic data for cyanobacteria. This wealth of data provides researchers with a new basis for the study of molecular adaptation, ecology and evolution of cyanobacteria, as well as for developing biotechnological applications. It also facilitates the use of multiplex techniques, i.e., expression profiling by high-throughput technologies such as microarrays, RNA-seq, and proteomics. However, exploration and analysis of these data is challenging, and often requires advanced computational methods. Also, they need to be integrated into our existing framework of knowledge to use them to draw reliable biological conclusions. Here, systems biology provides important tools. Especially, the construction and analysis of molecular networks has emerged as a powerful systems-level framework, with which to integrate such data, and to better understand biological relevant processes in these organisms. In this review, we provide an overview of the advances and experimental approaches undertaken using multiplex data from genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic studies in cyanobacteria. Furthermore, we summarize currently available web-based tools dedicated to cyanobacteria, i.e., CyanoBase, CyanoEXpress, ProPortal, Cyanorak, CyanoBIKE, and CINPER. Finally, we present a case study for the freshwater model cyanobacteria, Synechocystis sp. PCC6803, to show the power of meta-analysis, and the potential to extrapolate acquired knowledge to the ecologically important marine cyanobacteria genus, Prochlorococcus.

Evolution of a new chlorophyll metabolic pathway driven by the dynamic changes in enzyme promiscuous activity

Organisms generate an enormous number of metabolites; however, the mechanisms by which a new metabolic pathway is acquired are unknown. To elucidate the importance of promiscuous enzyme activity for pathway evolution, the catalytic and substrate specificities of Chl biosynthetic enzymes were examined. In green plants, Chl a and Chl b are interconverted by the Chl cycle: Chl a is hydroxylated to 7-hydroxymethyl chlorophyll a followed by the conversion to Chl b, and both reactions are catalyzed by chlorophyllide a oxygenase. Chl b is reduced to 7-hydroxymethyl chlorophyll a by Chl b reductase and then converted to Chl a by 7-hydroxymethyl chlorophyll a reductase (HCAR). A phylogenetic analysis indicated that HCAR evolved from cyanobacterial 3,8-divinyl chlorophyllide reductase (DVR), which is responsible for the reduction of an 8-vinyl group in the Chl biosynthetic pathway. In addition to vinyl reductase activity, cyanobacterial DVR also has Chl b reductase and HCAR activities; consequently, three of the four reactions of the Chl cycle already existed in cyanobacteria, the progenitor of the chloroplast. During the evolution of cyanobacterial DVR to HCAR, the HCAR activity, a promiscuous reaction of cyanobacterial DVR, became the primary reaction. Moreover, the primary reaction (vinyl reductase activity) and some disadvantageous reactions were lost, but the neutral promiscuous reaction (NADH dehydrogenase) was retained in both DVR and HCAR. We also show that a portion of the Chl c biosynthetic pathway already existed in cyanobacteria. We discuss the importance of dynamic changes in promiscuous activity and of the latent pathways for metabolic evolution.

Additional pathway to translate the downstream ndhK cistron in partially overlapping ndhC-ndhK mRNAs in chloroplasts

The chloroplast NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (NDH) C (ndhC) and ndhK genes partially overlap and are cotranscribed in many plants. We previously reported that the tobacco ndhC/K genes are translationally coupled but produce NdhC and NdhK, subunits of the NDH complex, in similar amounts. Generally, translation of the downstream cistron in overlapping mRNAs is very low. Hence, these findings suggested that the ndhK cistron is translated not only from the ndhC 5'UTR but also by an additional pathway. Using an in vitro translation system from tobacco chloroplasts, we report here that free ribosomes enter, with formylmethionyl-tRNA(fMet), at an internal AUG start codon that is located in frame in the middle of the upstream ndhC cistron, translate the 3' half of the ndhC cistron, reach the ndhK start codon, and that, at that point, some ribosomes resume ndhK translation. We detected a peptide corresponding to a 57-amino-acid product encoded by the sequence from the internal AUG to the ndhC stop codon. We propose a model in which the internal initiation site AUG is not designed for synthesizing a functional isoform but for delivering additional ribosomes to the ndhK cistron to produce NdhK in the amount required for the assembly of the NDH complex. This pathway is a unique type of translation to produce protein in the needed amount with the cost of peptide synthesis.

Iron deprivation in Synechocystis: inference of pathways, non-coding RNAs, and regulatory elements from comprehensive expression profiling

Iron is an essential cofactor in many metabolic reactions. Mechanisms controlling iron homeostasis need to respond rapidly to changes in extracellular conditions, but they must also keep the concentration of intracellular iron under strict control to avoid the generation of damaging reactive oxygen species. Due to its role as a redox carrier in photosynthesis, the iron quota in cyanobacteria is about 10 times higher than in model enterobacteria. The molecular details of how such a high quota is regulated are obscure. Here we present experiments that shed light on the iron regulatory system in cyanobacteria. We measured time-resolved changes in gene expression after iron depletion in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 using a comprehensive microarray platform, monitoring both protein-coding and non-coding transcripts. In total, less than a fifth of all protein-coding genes were differentially expressed during the first 72 hr. Many of these proteins are associated with iron transport, photosynthesis, or ATP synthesis. Comparing our data with three previous studies, we identified a core set of 28 genes involved in iron stress response. Among them were genes important for assimilation of inorganic carbon, suggesting a link between the carbon and iron regulatory networks. Nine of the 28 genes have unknown functions and constitute key targets for further functional analysis. Statistical and clustering analyses identified 10 small RNAs, 62 antisense RNAs, four 5′UTRs, and seven intragenic elements as potential novel components of the iron regulatory network in Synechocystis. Hence, our genome-wide expression profiling indicates an unprecedented complexity in the iron regulatory network of cyanobacteria.

Regulation of the cyanobacterial CO2-concentrating mechanism involves internal sensing of NADP+ and α-ketogutarate levels by transcription factor CcmR

Inorganic carbon is the major macronutrient required by organisms utilizing oxygenic photosynthesis for autotrophic growth. Aquatic photoautotrophic organisms are dependent upon a CO(2) concentrating mechanism (CCM) to overcome the poor CO(2)-affinity of the major carbon-fixing enzyme, ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco). The CCM involves the active transport of inorganic forms of carbon (C(i)) into the cell to increase the CO(2) concentration around the active site of Rubisco. It employs both bicarbonate transporters and redox-powered CO(2)-hydration enzymes coupled to membranous NDH-type electron transport complexes that collectively produce C(i) concentrations up to a 1000-fold greater in the cytoplasm compared to the external environment. The CCM is regulated: a high affinity CCM comprised of multiple components is induced under limiting external Ci concentrations. The LysR-type transcriptional regulator CcmR has been shown to repress its own expression along with structural genes encoding high affinity C(i) transporters distributed throughout the genome of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. While much has been learned about the structural genes of the CCM and the identity of the transcriptional regulators controlling their expression, little is known about the physiological signals that elicit the induction of the high affinity CCM. Here CcmR is studied to identify metabolites that modulate its transcriptional repressor activity. Using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) α-ketoglutarate (α-KG) and the oxidized form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP(+)) have been identified as the co-repressors of CcmR. Additionally, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) and 2-phosphoglycolate (2-PG) have been confirmed as co-activators of CmpR which controls the expression of the ABC-type bicarbonate transporter.

Control of electron transport routes through redox-regulated redistribution of respiratory complexes

In cyanobacteria, respiratory electron transport takes place in close proximity to photosynthetic electron transport, because the complexes required for both processes are located within the thylakoid membranes. The balance of electron transport routes is crucial for cell physiology, yet the factors that control the predominance of particular pathways are poorly understood. Here we use a combination of tagging with green fluorescent protein and confocal fluorescence microscopy in live cells of the cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 to investigate the distribution on submicron scales of two key respiratory electron donors, type-I NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (NDH-1) and succinate dehydrogenase (SDH). When cells are grown under low light, both complexes are concentrated in discrete patches in the thylakoid membranes, about 100-300 nm in diameter and containing tens to hundreds of complexes. Exposure to moderate light leads to redistribution of both NDH-1 and SDH such that they become evenly distributed within the thylakoid membranes. The effects of electron transport inhibitors indicate that redistribution of respiratory complexes is triggered by changes in the redox state of an electron carrier close to plastoquinone. Redistribution does not depend on de novo protein synthesis, and it is accompanied by a major increase in the probability that respiratory electrons are transferred to photosystem I rather than to a terminal oxidase. These results indicate that the distribution of complexes on the scale of 100-300 nm controls the partitioning of reducing power and that redistribution of electron transport complexes on these scales is a physiological mechanism to regulate the pathways of electron flow.

Identification of novel Ssl0352 protein (NdhS), essential for efficient operation of cyclic electron transport around photosystem I, in NADPH:plastoquinone oxidoreductase (NDH-1) complexes of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

Cyanobacterial NADPH:plastoquinone oxidoreductase, or type I NAD(P)H dehydrogenase, or the NDH-1 complex is involved in plastoquinone reduction and cyclic electron transfer (CET) around photosystem I. CET, in turn, produces extra ATP for cell metabolism particularly under stressful conditions. Despite significant achievements in the study of cyanobacterial NDH-1 complexes during the past few years, the entire subunit composition still remains elusive. To identify missing subunits, we screened a transposon-tagged library of Synechocystis 6803 cells grown under high light. Two NDH-1-mediated CET (NDH-CET)-defective mutants were tagged in the same ssl0352 gene encoding a short unknown protein. To clarify the function of Ssl0352, the ssl0352 deletion mutant and another mutant with Ssl0352 fused to yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) and the His(6) tag were constructed. Immunoblotting, mass spectrometry, and confocal microscopy analyses revealed that the Ssl0352 protein resides in the thylakoid membrane and associates with the NDH-1L and NDH-1M complexes. We conclude that Ssl0352 is a novel subunit of cyanobacterial NDH-1 complexes and designate it NdhS. Deletion of the ssl0352 gene considerably impaired the NDH-CET activity and also retarded cell growth under high light conditions, indicating that NdhS is essential for efficient operation of NDH-CET. However, the assembly of the NDH-1L and NDH-1M complexes and their content in the cells were not affected in the mutant. NdhS contains a Src homology 3-like domain and might be involved in interaction of the NDH-1 complex with an electron donor.

Structure of the chloroplast NADH dehydrogenase-like complex: nomenclature for nuclear-encoded subunits

The chloroplast NADH dehydrogenase-like complex (NDH) was first discovered based on its similarity to complex I in respiratory electron transport, and is involved in electron transport from photoproduced stromal reductants such as NADPH and ferredoxin to the intersystem plastoqunone pool. However, a recent study suggested that it is a ferredoxin-dependent plastoquinone reductase rather than an NAD(P)H dehydrogenase. Furthermore, recent advances in subunit analysis of NDH have revealed the presence of a novel hydrophilic subcomplex on the stromal side of the thylakoid membrane, as well as an unexpected lumenal subcomplex. This review discusses these new studies on the structure of NDH, and proposes a unified nomenclature for newly discovered NDH subunits.

Inorganic carbon transporters of the cyanobacterial CO2 concentrating mechanism

Cyanobacteria possess an environmental adaptation known as a CO(2) concentrating mechanism (CCM) that evolved to improve photosynthetic performance, particularly under CO(2)-limiting conditions. The CCM functions to actively transport dissolved inorganic carbon species (Ci; HCO(3)(-) and CO(2)) resulting in accumulation of a pool of HCO(3)(-) within the cell that is then utilised to provide an elevated CO(2) concentration around the primary CO(2) fixing enzyme, ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase (Rubisco). Rubisco is encapsulated in unique micro-compartments known as carboxysomes and also provides the location for elevated CO(2) levels in the cell. Five distinct transport systems for active Ci uptake are known, including two types of Na(+)-dependent HCO(3)(-) transporters (BicA and SbtA), one traffic ATPase (BCT1) for HCO(3)(-) uptake and two CO(2) uptake systems based on modified NADPH dehydrogenase complexes (NDH-I(3) and NDH-I(4)). The genes for a number of these transporters are genetically induced under Ci limitation via transcriptional regulatory processes. The in-membrane topology structures of the BicA and SbtA HCO(3)(-) transporters are now known and this may aid in determining processes related to transporter activation during dark to light transitions or under severe Ci limitation.

Comparative protein expression in different strains of the bloom-forming cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa

Toxin production in algal blooms presents a significant problem for the water industry. Of particular concern is microcystin, a potent hepatotoxin produced by the unicellular freshwater species Microcystis aeruginosa. In this study, the proteomes of six toxic and nontoxic strains of M. aeruginosa were analyzed to gain further knowledge in elucidating the role of microcystin production in this microorganism. This represents the first comparative proteomic study in a cyanobacterial species. A large diversity in the protein expression profiles of each strain was observed, with a significant proportion of the identified proteins appearing to be strain-specific. In total, 475 proteins were identified reproducibly and of these, 82 comprised the core proteome of M. aeruginosa. The expression of several hypothetical and unknown proteins, including four possible operons was confirmed. Surprisingly, no proteins were found to be produced only by toxic or nontoxic strains. Quantitative proteome analysis using the label-free normalized spectrum abundance factor approach revealed nine proteins that were differentially expressed between toxic and nontoxic strains. These proteins participate in carbon-nitrogen metabolism and redox balance maintenance and point to an involvement of the global nitrogen regulator NtcA in toxicity. In addition, the switching of a previously inactive toxin-producing strain to microcystin synthesis is reported.

NdhP and NdhQ: two novel small subunits of the cyanobacterial NDH-1 complex

The subunit composition of the NAD(P)H dehydrogenase complex of Thermosynechococcus elongatus was analyzed by different types of mass spectrometry. All 15 known subunits (NdhA-NdhO) were identified in the purified NDH-1L complex. Moreover, two additional intact mass tags of 4902.7 and 4710.5 Da could be assigned after reannotation of the T. elongatus genome. NdhP and NdhQ are predicted to contain a single transmembrane helix each, and homologues are apparent in other cyanobacteria. Additionally, ndhP is present in some cyanophages in a cluster of PSI genes and exhibits partial similarity to NDF6, a subunit of the plant NDH-1 complex.

Cyanobacterial NDH-1 complexes: novel insights and remaining puzzles

Cyanobacterial NDH-1 complexes belong to a family of energy converting NAD(P)H:Quinone oxidoreductases that includes bacterial type-I NADH dehydrogenase and mitochondrial Complex I. Several distinct NDH-1 complexes may coexist in cyanobacterial cells and thus be responsible for a variety of functions including respiration, cyclic electron flow around PSI and CO(2) uptake. The present review is focused on specific features that allow to regard the cyanobacterial NDH-1 complexes, together with NDH complexes from chloroplasts, as a separate sub-class of the Complex I family of enzymes. Here, we summarize our current knowledge about structure of functionally different NDH-1 complexes in cyanobacteria and consider implications for a functional mechanism. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Regulation of Electron Transport in Chloroplasts.

Structure and biogenesis of the chloroplast NAD(P)H dehydrogenase complex

Eleven genes (ndhA-ndhK) encoding proteins homologous to the subunits of bacterial and mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase (complex I) were found in the plastid genome of most land plants. These genes encode subunits of the chloroplast NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (NDH) complex involved in photosystem I (PSI) cyclic electron transport and chlororespiration. Although the chloroplast NDH is believed to be closely and functionally related to the cyanobacterial NDH-1L complex, extensive proteomic, genetic and bioinformatic studies have discovered many novel subunits that are specific to higher plants. On the basis of extensive mutant characterization, the chloroplast NDH complex is divided into four parts, the A, B, membrane and lumen subcomplexes, of which subunits in the B and lumen subcomplexes are specific to higher plants. These results suggest that the structure of NDH has been drastically altered during the evolution of land plants. Furthermore, chloroplast NDH interacts with multiple copies of PSI to form the unique NDH-PSI supercomplex. Two minor light-harvesting-complex I (LHCI) proteins, Lhca5 and Lhca6, are required for the specific interaction between NDH and PSI. The evolution of chloroplast NDH in land plants may be required for development of the function of NDH to alleviate oxidative stress in chloroplasts. In this review, we summarize recent progress on the subunit composition and structure of the chloroplast NDH complex, as well as the information on some factors involved in its assembly. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Regulation of Electron Transport in Chloroplasts.

Plastid ndh genes in plant evolution

The plastid ndh genes encode components of the thylakoid Ndh complex which purportedly acts as an electron feeding valve to adjust the redox level of the cyclic photosynthetic electron transporters. During the process of evolution from endosymbiosis to modern chloroplast, most cyanobacterial genes were lost or transferred to nucleus. Eleven ndh genes are among the 150-200 genes remaining in higher plant chloroplast DNA, out of some 3000 genes in the original prokaryotic Cyanobacteria in which homologues to ndh genes encode components of the respiratory Complex I and probably other complexes. The ndh genes are absent in all sequenced plastid DNAs of algae except for the Charophyceae and some Prasinophyceae. With the possible exclusion of some Conifers and Gnetales, the plastid DNA of all photosynthetic land plants contains the ndh genes, whereas they are absent in epiphytic plants that have also lost genes for the photosynthetic machinery. Therefore, the functional role of the ndh genes seems closely related to the land adaptation of photosynthesis. Transcripts of several plastid genes require C to U editing. The ndh genes concentrate about 50% of the editing sites of angiosperm plastid transcripts. Editing sites may be remnants from an ancestor in which a number of T to C inactivating mutations took place in the ndh genes which, during evolution, are being corrected back to T. The comparison of homologous editing sites in the mRNAs of angiosperm ndh genes provides a tool to investigate selective and permissive environmental conditions of past evolutionary events.

Chloroplast stromal proteins, CRR6 and CRR7, are required for assembly of the NAD(P)H dehydrogenase subcomplex A in Arabidopsis

In higher plants, the chloroplast NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (NDH) complex mediates chlororespiration and photosystem I (PSI) cyclic electron transport in thylakoid membranes. Because of its low abundance and fragility, our knowledge on the assembly of chloroplast NDH is very limited, and some nuclear-encoded factors may be involved in this process. We show here that two Arabidopsis proteins, CHLORORESPIRATORY REDUCTION 6 (CRR6) and CRR7, which were previously identified in mutants specifically defective in NDH accumulation, are present in the stroma, and their stability is independent of the NDH complex, suggesting that they are unlikely to be NDH subunits. Blue native PAGE analysis showed that the accumulation of NDH subcomplex A, which is a core part of NDH that is conserved in divergent species, was specifically impaired in the crr6 and crr7-1 mutants. However, the expression of plastid-encoded genes encoding the subcomplex A subunits was not affected, suggesting that CRR6 and CRR7 are involved in post-translational steps during the biogenesis of subcomplex A. We also discovered that a substantial quantity of NdhH is present in several protein complexes in the chloroplast stroma, possibly as early assembly intermediates of subcomplex A. Although the accumulation of these stromal complexes was not affected in crr6 or crr7-1, CRR6 was co-purified with NdhH, implying that CRR6 functions in the later step of subcomplex-A biogenesis. Accumulation of CRR7 was independent of that of CRR6; we propose that CRR7 functions in a different step in subcomplex-A biogenesis from CRR6.

Towards characterization of the chloroplast NAD(P)H dehydrogenase complex

The NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (NDH) complex in chloroplast thylakoid membranes functions in cyclic electron transfer, and in chlororespiration. NDH is composed of at least 15 subunits, including both chloroplast- and nuclear-encoded proteins. During the past few years, extensive proteomic and genetic research on the higher plant NDH complex has been carried out, resulting in identification of several novel nuclear-encoded subunits. In addition, a number of auxiliary proteins, which mainly regulate the expression of chloroplast-encoded ndh genes as well as the assembly and stabilization of the NDH complex, have been discovered and characterized. In the absence of detailed crystallographic data, the structure of the NDH complex has remained obscure, and therefore the role of several NDH-associated nuclear-encoded proteins either as auxiliary proteins or structural subunits remains uncertain. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the subunit composition and assembly process of the chloroplast NDH complex. In addition, a novel oligomeric structure of NDH, the PSI/NDH supercomplex, is discussed.

Efficient operation of NAD(P)H dehydrogenase requires supercomplex formation with photosystem I via minor LHCI in Arabidopsis

In higher plants, the chloroplast NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (NDH) complex mediates photosystem I (PSI) cyclic and chlororespiratory electron transport. We reported previously that NDH interacts with the PSI complex to form a supercomplex (NDH-PSI). In this study, NDH18 and FKBP16-2 (FK506 Binding Protein 16-2), detected in the NDH-PSI supercomplex by mass spectrometry, were shown to be NDH subunits by the analysis of their knockdown lines. On the basis of extensive mutant characterization, we propose a structural model for chloroplast NDH, whereby NDH is divided into four subcomplexes. The subcomplex A and membrane subcomplex are conserved in cyanobacteria, but the subcomplex B and lumen subcomplex are specific to chloroplasts. Two minor light-harvesting complex I proteins, Lhca5 and Lhca6, were required for the full-size NDH-PSI supercomplex formation. Similar to crr pgr5 double mutants that completely lack cyclic electron flow activity around PSI, the lhca6 pgr5 double mutant exhibited a severe defect in growth. Consistent with the impaired NDH activity, photosynthesis was also severely affected in mature leaves of lhca6 pgr5. We conclude that chloroplast NDH became equipped with the novel subcomplexes and became associated with PSI during the evolution of land plants, and this process may have facilitated the efficient operation of NDH.

Functional characterization of the thylakoid Ndh complex phosphorylation by site-directed mutations in the ndhF gene

To investigate the phosphorylation of the NDH-F subunit of the thylakoid Ndh complex, we constructed three site-directed mutant transgenic tobaccos (Nicotiana tabacum) (T181A, T181S and T181D) in which the (541)ACT(543) triplet encoding the Thr-181 has been substituted by GCT, TCT or GAT encoding alanine, serine and aspartic acid, respectively. Western blots with phospho-threonine antibody detected the 73 kD NDH-F phosphorylated polypeptide in control but not in mutant tobaccos. Differences in Ndh activity, chlorophyll fluorescence and photosynthesis among mutants and control plant demonstrate the key role of the phosphorylation of conserved Thr-181 in the activity and function of the Ndh complex. The substitution of aspartic acid for threonine in T181D mimics the presumable activation effects of the threonine phosphorylation in Ndh activity, post-illumination increase of chlorophyll fluorescence and photosynthesis rapid responses to changing light intensities. A tentative role of the phosphorylation-activated Ndh complex is suggested to poise the redox level and, consequently, optimizing the rate of cyclic electron transport under field conditions.

Identification and bioinformatic analysis of the membrane proteins of synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

Background

The membranes of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 play a central role in photosynthesis, respiration and other important metabolic pathways. Comprehensive identification of the membrane proteins is of importance for a better understanding of the diverse functions of its unique membrane structures. Up to date, approximately 900 known or predicted membrane proteins, consisting 24.5% of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 proteome, have been indentified by large-scale proteomic studies.

Results

To resolve more membrane proteins on 2-D gels for mass spectrometry identification, we separated integral proteins from membrane associated proteins and collected them as the integral and peripheral fractions, respectively. In total, 95 proteins in the peripheral fraction and 29 proteins in the integral fraction were identified, including the 5 unique proteins that were not identified by any previous studies. Bioinformatic analysis revealed that the identified proteins can be functionally classified into 14 distinct groups according to the cellular functions annotated by Cyanobase, including the two largest groups hypothetical and unknown, and photosynthesis and respiration. Homology analysis indicates that the identified membrane proteins are more conserved than the rest of the proteome.

Conclusion

The proteins identified in this study combined with other published proteomic data provide the most comprehensive Synechocystis proteome catalog, which will serve as a useful reference for further detailed studies to address protein functions through both traditional gene-by-gene and systems biology approaches.

Architecture of complex I and its implications for electron transfer and proton pumping

Proton pumping NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I) is the largest and remains by far the least understood enzyme complex of the respiratory chain. It consists of a peripheral arm harbouring all known redox active prosthetic groups and a membrane arm with a yet unknown number of proton translocation sites. The ubiquinone reduction site close to iron-sulfur cluster N2 at the interface of the 49-kDa and PSST subunits has been mapped by extensive site directed mutagenesis. Independent lines of evidence identified electron transfer events during reduction of ubiquinone to be associated with the potential drop that generates the full driving force for proton translocation with a 4H(+)/2e(-) stoichiometry. Electron microscopic analysis of immuno-labelled native enzyme and of a subcomplex lacking the electron input module indicated a distance of 35-60 A of cluster N2 to the membrane surface. Resolution of the membrane arm into subcomplexes showed that even the distal part harbours subunits that are prime candidates to participate in proton translocation because they are homologous to sodium/proton antiporters and contain conserved charged residues in predicted transmembrane helices. The mechanism of redox linked proton translocation by complex I is largely unknown but has to include steps where energy is transmitted over extremely long distances. In this review we compile the available structural information on complex I and discuss implications for complex I function.