1
|
Balakrishnan KN, Abdullah AA, Bala JA, Jesse FFA, Abdullah CAC, Noordin MM, Mohd-Azmi ML. Immediately early 2 (IE-2) and DNA polymerase SiRNA as virus-specific antiviral against novel transplacental cytomegalovirus strain ALL-03 in vitro. Infect Genet Evol 2021; 90:104783. [PMID: 33640483 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2021.104783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study investigated the suitability of siRNA targeting specific genes that cause inhibition of virus replication in vitro especially for the virus that capable of crossing placenta and we employed a novel transplacental rat cytomegalovirus that mimics infection in human. METHODS Six unique siRNAs with three each targeting different regions of IE2 (ie2a, ie2b and ie2c) and DNA polymerase (dpa, dpb and dpc) were prepared and tested for antiviral activities. The efficacy as an antiviral was determined in in-vitro by measuring TCID50 virus titer, severity of virus-induced cytopathic effect (CPE), intracellular viral genome loads by droplet digital PCR, the degree of apoptosis in siRNA-treated cells and relative expression of viral mRNA in infected Rat Embryo Fibroblast (REF) cells. FINDINGS Remarkably, the siRNAs: dpa, dpb and IE2b, significantly reduced virus yield (approximately >90%) compared to control group at day 18 post infection (p.i). Changes in CPE indicated that DNA polymerase siRNAs were capable of protecting cells against CMV infection at day 14 p.i with higher efficiency than GCV (at the concentration of 300 pmol). Gene expression analysis revealed a marked down regulation of the targeted DNA polymerase gene (73.9%, 96.0% and 90.7% for dpa, dpb and dpc siRNA, respectively) and IE2 gene (50.8%, 49.9% and 15.8% for ie2a, ie2b and ie2c siRNA, respectively) when measured by RT-qPCR. Intracellular viral DNA loads showed a significant reduction for all the DNA polymerase siRNAs (dpa: 96%, dpb: 98% and dpc:92) compared to control group (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION In conclusion, this study clearly highlighted the feasibility of RNAi as an alternative antiviral therapy that could lead to controlling the CMV infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Krishnan Nair Balakrishnan
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Ashwaq Ahmed Abdullah
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Applied Science, Taiz University, Taiz, Yemen
| | - Jamilu Abubakar Bala
- Microbiology Unit, Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Bayero University Kano, Nigeria
| | - Faez Firdaus Abdullah Jesse
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
| | | | - Mustapha Mohamed Noordin
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Lila Mohd-Azmi
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Pandey B, Mallik I, Gudmestad NC. Development and Application of a Real-Time Reverse-Transcription PCR and Droplet Digital PCR Assays for the Direct Detection of Potato mop top virus in Soil. Phytopathology 2020; 110:58-67. [PMID: 31448996 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-05-19-0185-fi] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Potato mop top virus (PMTV) is a continuing threat to potato production throughout the world. It has the potential to persist in the soil for long periods in the sporosori of its vector Spongospora subterranea f. sp. subterranea, which is as an important source for PMTV infection and dissemination. In this study, we used real-time quantitative reverse-transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) and reverse-transcription droplet digital PCR (RT-ddPCR) assays of the total RNA extracted directly from the soil to develop a simple, fast, and sensitive method to detect PMTV in soil samples using a specific primer with high efficiency despite a minimal amount of viral RNA. The designed primers are resilient in the presence of various PCR inhibitors in the soil when RNA is extracted. Both assays detected PMTV in all soil types used and supported the detection of <10 PMTV copies µl-1 in the RNA sample. With qRT-PCR, detection was linear, with amplification efficiencies ranging from 93.3 to 105.3% for silt loam, loamy sand, sand, and sandy loam in various experiments with R2 > 0.99. Furthermore, the RT-ddPCR assay also demonstrated a high degree of linearity (R2 > 0.99 and P < 0.0001) with the RNA extracted from the soil samples representing different textures and physiochemical characteristics that were artificially spiked with infested S. subterranea f. sp. subterranea sporosori. Additionally, both assays successfully detected PMTV in different types of naturally infested soil with PMTV carrying S. subterranea f. sp. subterranea sporosori levels ranging from 6.2 × 102 g-1 to 1.2 × 106 g-1 in soils with pH ranging from 4.9 to 7.5 and organic matter ranging from 0.9 to 5.1%, demonstrating the potential to detect PMTV in a wide variety of soils. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the development of real-time PCR and ddPCR methods for the direct detection of a soilborne virus in soil.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Binod Pandey
- Department of Plant Pathology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND
| | - Ipsita Mallik
- Department of Plant Pathology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND
| | - Neil C Gudmestad
- Department of Plant Pathology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Selvaraj V, Maheshwari Y, Hajeri S, Chen J, McCollum TG, Yokomi R. Development of a duplex droplet digital PCR assay for absolute quantitative detection of "Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus". PLoS One 2018; 13:e0197184. [PMID: 29772016 PMCID: PMC5957411 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0197184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 04/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Huanglongbing (HLB, citrus greening) is a devastating citrus disease affecting citrus production worldwide. It is associated with the bacterium “Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus” (CLas) and is vectored by the Asian citrus psyllid (ACP). Currently, diagnosis of CLas in regulatory samples is based on real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) using 16S rRNA gene specific primers/probe. The detection of CLas using qPCR is challenging due to low pathogen titer and uneven distribution in infected plants and exacerbated by sampling issues and presence of inhibitors. This study evaluated a duplex droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) using multi-copy gene targets, 16S and RNR, to simultaneously detect CLas DNA targets in the same sample for unambiguous detection of the HLB pathogen in DNA extracts from citrus leaves and ACP. Standard curve analyses on tenfold dilution series with plasmid, citrus leaf and ACP DNA showed that both ddPCR and qPCR exhibited good linearity and efficiency in the duplex assay. CLas-infected low titer samples were used to validate the duplex ddPCR and qPCR performance and demonstrated that detection rate is higher when both 16S and RNR primers were used in duplex assay. However, the receiver operating characteristic analysis indicated that area under the curve for RNR primer was significantly broader, compared to 16S primers for CLas detection at low target titer. The absolute quantification of CLas at variable titers was reproducible and repeatable for both primer sets and the ddPCR showed higher resilience to PCR inhibitors with citrus leaf and ACP extracts. Hence, the resultant duplex ddPCR assay resulted in a significantly improved detection platform for diagnosis of CLas in samples with low pathogen titer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vijayanandraj Selvaraj
- USDA-ARS, San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center, Parlier, CA, United States of America
- * E-mail: (RKY); (VS)
| | - Yogita Maheshwari
- USDA-ARS, San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center, Parlier, CA, United States of America
| | - Subhas Hajeri
- Citrus Pest Detection Program, Central California Tristeza Eradication Agency, Tulare, CA, United States of America
| | - Jianchi Chen
- USDA-ARS, San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center, Parlier, CA, United States of America
| | - Thomas Greg McCollum
- USDA-ARS, U.S. Horticultural Research Laboratory, Fort Pierce, FL, United States of America
| | - Raymond Yokomi
- USDA-ARS, San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center, Parlier, CA, United States of America
- * E-mail: (RKY); (VS)
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Maheshwari Y, Selvaraj V, Hajeri S, Yokomi R. Application of droplet digital PCR for quantitative detection of Spiroplasma citri in comparison with real time PCR. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0184751. [PMID: 28910375 PMCID: PMC5599046 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0184751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) is a method for performing digital PCR that is based on water-oil emulsion droplet technology. It is a unique approach to measure the absolute copy number of nucleic acid targets without the need of external standards. This study evaluated the applicability of ddPCR as a quantitative detection tool for the Spiroplasma citri, causal agent of citrus stubborn disease (CSD) in citrus. Two sets of primers, SP1, based on the spiral in housekeeping gene, and a multicopy prophage gene, SpV1 ORF1, were used to evaluate ddPCR in comparison with real time (quantitative) PCR (qPCR) for S. citri detection in citrus tissues. Standard curve analyses on tenfold dilution series showed that both ddPCR and qPCR exhibited good linearity and efficiency. However, ddPCR had a tenfold greater sensitivity than qPCR and accurately quantified up to one copy of spiralin gene. Receiver operating characteristic analysis indicated that the ddPCR methodology was more robust for diagnosis of CSD and the area under the curve was significantly broader compared to qPCR. Field samples were used to validate ddPCR efficacy and demonstrated that it was equal or better than qPCR to detect S. citri infection in fruit columella due to a higher pathogen titer. The ddPCR assay detected both the S. citri spiralin and the SpV1 ORF1 targets quantitatively with high precision and accuracy compared to qPCR assay. The ddPCR was highly reproducible and repeatable for both the targets and showed higher resilience to PCR inhibitors in citrus tissue extract for the quantification of S. citri compare to qPCR.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yogita Maheshwari
- USDA-ARS, San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center, Parlier, CA, United States of America
| | - Vijayanandraj Selvaraj
- USDA-ARS, San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center, Parlier, CA, United States of America
| | - Subhas Hajeri
- Citrus Pest Detection Program, Central California Tristeza Eradication Agency, Tulare, CA, United States of America
| | - Raymond Yokomi
- USDA-ARS, San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center, Parlier, CA, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Caicedo LM, Wang H, Lu W, De Clercq D, Liu Y, Xu S, Ni Z. Effect of initial bulk density on high-solids anaerobic digestion of MSW: General mechanism. Bioresour Technol 2017; 233:332-341. [PMID: 28285226 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2017.02.107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2016] [Revised: 02/17/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Initial bulk density (IBD) is an important variable in anaerobic digestion since it defines and optimizes the treatment capacity of a system. This study reveals the mechanism on how IBD might affect anaerobic digestion of waste. Four different IBD values: D1 (500-700kgm-3), D2 (900-1000kgm-3), D3 (1100-1200kgm-3) and D4 (1200-1400kgm-3) were set and tested over a period of 90days in simulated landfill reactors. The main variables affected by the IBD are the methane generation, saturation degree, extraction of organic matter, and the total population of methanogens. The study identified that IBD >1000kgm-3 may have significant effect on methane generation, either prolonging the lag time or completely inhibiting the process. This study provides a new understanding of the anaerobic digestion process in saturated high-solids systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luis M Caicedo
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Hongtao Wang
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Wenjing Lu
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
| | - Djavan De Clercq
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yanjun Liu
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Sai Xu
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Zhe Ni
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Zhao Y, Xia Q, Yin Y, Wang Z. Comparison of Droplet Digital PCR and Quantitative PCR Assays for Quantitative Detection of Xanthomonas citri Subsp. citri. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0159004. [PMID: 27427975 PMCID: PMC4948846 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0159004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) is a novel molecular biology technique providing absolute quantification of target nucleic acids without the need for an external calibrator. Despite its emerging applications in medical diagnosis, there are few reports of its use for the detection of plant pathogens. This work was designed to assess the diagnosis potential of the ddPCR for absolute quantitative detection of Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri, a quarantine plant pathogenic bacterium that causes citrus bacterial canker in susceptible Citrus species. We transferred an established quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay for citrus bacterial canker diagnosis directly to the ddPCR format and compared the performance of the two methods. The qPCR assay has a broader dynamic range compared to the ddPCR assay and the ddPCR assay has a significantly higher degree of sensitivity compared to the qPCR assay. The influence of PCR inhibitors can be reduced considerably in the ddPCR assay because the collection of end-point fluorescent signals and the counting of binomial events (positive or negative droplets) are associated with a Poisson algorithm. The ddPCR assay also shows lower coefficient of variation compared to the qPCR assay especially in low target concentration. The linear association of the measurements by ddPCR and qPCR assays is strong (Pearson correlation = 0.8633; P<0.001). Receiver operating characteristic analysis indicates the ddPCR methodology is a more robust approach for diagnosis of citrus bacterial canker. In summary, the results demonstrated that the ddPCR assay has the potential for the quantitative detection of X. citri subsp. citri with high precision and accuracy as compared with the results from qPCR assay. Further studies are required to evaluate and validate the value of ddPCR technology in the diagnosis of plant disease and quarantine applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yun Zhao
- School of Life Science, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400030, China
| | - Qingyan Xia
- School of Life Science, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400030, China
| | - Youping Yin
- School of Life Science, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400030, China
| | - Zhongkang Wang
- School of Life Science, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400030, China
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Zhao S, Lin H, Chen S, Yang M, Yan Q, Wen C, Hao Z, Yan Y, Sun Y, Hu J, Chen Z, Xi L. Sensitive detection of Porcine circovirus-2 by droplet digital polymerase chain reaction. J Vet Diagn Invest 2015; 27:784-8. [PMID: 26391713 DOI: 10.1177/1040638715608358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensitive detection of Porcine circovirus-2 (PCV-2) is very important for surveillance of postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome. Droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) is novel PCR method that can achieve high precision. Our study aimed to develop a sensitive assay utilizing ddPCR to detect PCV-2. Specificity of the assay was confirmed by the failure of amplification of DNA of other relevant viruses. The detection limit for ddPCR was 25 copies/μL, a 4-fold greater sensitivity than TaqMan real-time PCR. Both methods showed a high degree of linearity (R(2) = ~1), although TaqMan real-time PCR showed less sensitivity than ddPCR for clinical detection. Our findings indicate that ddPCR might represent a promising platform for detecting PCV-2 viral loads.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shan Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine (Zhao, Q Yan, Wen, Hao, Z Chen, Xi) and Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province (Q Yan), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, ChinaSichuan Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Chengdu, China (Lin, S Chen, Yang, Y Yan, Sun, Hu)
| | - Hua Lin
- College of Veterinary Medicine (Zhao, Q Yan, Wen, Hao, Z Chen, Xi) and Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province (Q Yan), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, ChinaSichuan Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Chengdu, China (Lin, S Chen, Yang, Y Yan, Sun, Hu)
| | - Shijie Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine (Zhao, Q Yan, Wen, Hao, Z Chen, Xi) and Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province (Q Yan), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, ChinaSichuan Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Chengdu, China (Lin, S Chen, Yang, Y Yan, Sun, Hu)
| | - Miao Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine (Zhao, Q Yan, Wen, Hao, Z Chen, Xi) and Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province (Q Yan), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, ChinaSichuan Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Chengdu, China (Lin, S Chen, Yang, Y Yan, Sun, Hu)
| | - Qigui Yan
- College of Veterinary Medicine (Zhao, Q Yan, Wen, Hao, Z Chen, Xi) and Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province (Q Yan), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, ChinaSichuan Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Chengdu, China (Lin, S Chen, Yang, Y Yan, Sun, Hu)
| | - Caifang Wen
- College of Veterinary Medicine (Zhao, Q Yan, Wen, Hao, Z Chen, Xi) and Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province (Q Yan), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, ChinaSichuan Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Chengdu, China (Lin, S Chen, Yang, Y Yan, Sun, Hu)
| | - Zhongxiang Hao
- College of Veterinary Medicine (Zhao, Q Yan, Wen, Hao, Z Chen, Xi) and Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province (Q Yan), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, ChinaSichuan Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Chengdu, China (Lin, S Chen, Yang, Y Yan, Sun, Hu)
| | - Yubao Yan
- College of Veterinary Medicine (Zhao, Q Yan, Wen, Hao, Z Chen, Xi) and Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province (Q Yan), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, ChinaSichuan Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Chengdu, China (Lin, S Chen, Yang, Y Yan, Sun, Hu)
| | - Yingjie Sun
- College of Veterinary Medicine (Zhao, Q Yan, Wen, Hao, Z Chen, Xi) and Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province (Q Yan), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, ChinaSichuan Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Chengdu, China (Lin, S Chen, Yang, Y Yan, Sun, Hu)
| | - Juan Hu
- College of Veterinary Medicine (Zhao, Q Yan, Wen, Hao, Z Chen, Xi) and Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province (Q Yan), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, ChinaSichuan Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Chengdu, China (Lin, S Chen, Yang, Y Yan, Sun, Hu)
| | - Zhenrong Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine (Zhao, Q Yan, Wen, Hao, Z Chen, Xi) and Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province (Q Yan), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, ChinaSichuan Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Chengdu, China (Lin, S Chen, Yang, Y Yan, Sun, Hu)
| | - Lixin Xi
- College of Veterinary Medicine (Zhao, Q Yan, Wen, Hao, Z Chen, Xi) and Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province (Q Yan), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, ChinaSichuan Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Chengdu, China (Lin, S Chen, Yang, Y Yan, Sun, Hu)
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Abstract
Two different quantitative PCR platforms, droplet digital PCR (dd-PCR) and quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR), were compared in a mcrA-based methanogen community assay that quantifies ten methanogen sub-groups. Both technologies exhibited similar PCR efficiencies over at least four orders of magnitude and the same lower limits of detection (8 copies μL-DNA extract−1). The mcrA-based methanogen communities in three full-scale anaerobic digesters were examined using the two technologies. dd-PCR detected seven groups from the digesters, while qPCR did five groups, indicating that dd-PCR is more sensitive for DNA quantification. Linear regression showed quantitative agreements between both of the technologies (R2 = 0.59–0.98) in the five groups that were concurrently detected. Principal component analysis from the two datasets consistently indicated a substantial difference in the community composition among the digesters and revealed similar levels of differentiation among the communities. The combined results suggest that dd-PCR is more promising for examining methanogenic archaeal communities in biotechnological processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tae Gwan Kim
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, 11-1 Daehyun-dong, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 120-750, Republic of Korea
| | - So-Yeon Jeong
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, 11-1 Daehyun-dong, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 120-750, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung-Suk Cho
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, 11-1 Daehyun-dong, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 120-750, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|