High-speed atomic force microscopy in slow motion--understanding cantilever behaviour at high scan velocities

Massively parallel electro-optic sampling of space-encoded optical pulses for ultrafast multi-dimensional imaging

High-speed and high-resolution imaging of surface profiles is critical for the investigation of various structures and mechanical dynamics of micro- and nano-scale devices. In particular, recent emergence of various nonlinear, transient and complex mechanical dynamics, such as anharmonic vibrations in mechanical resonators, has necessitated real-time surface deformation imaging with higher axial and lateral resolutions, speed, and dynamic range. However, real-time capturing of fast and complex mechanical dynamics has been challenging, and direct time-domain imaging of displacements and mechanical motions has been a missing element in studying full-field structural and dynamic behaviours. Here, by exploiting the electro-optic sampling with a frequency comb, we demonstrate a line-scan time-of-flight (TOF) camera that can simultaneously measure the TOF changes of more than 1000 spatial coordinates with hundreds megapixels/s pixel-rate and sub-nanometre axial resolution over several millimetres field-of-view. This unique combination of performances enables fast and precise imaging of both complex structures and dynamics in three-dimensional devices and mechanical resonators.

Sample preparation methods for optimal HS-AFM analysis: Duplex stainless steel

The contact mode high-speed atomic force microscope (AFM) operates orders of magnitude faster than conventional AFMs. It is capable of capturing multiple frames per second with nanometre-scale lateral resolution and subatomic height resolution. This advancement in imaging rate allows for microscale analysis across macroscale surfaces, making it suitable for applications across materials science. However, the quality of the surface analysis obtained by high-speed AFM is highly dependent upon the standard of sample preparation and the resultant final surface finish. In this study, different surface preparation techniques that are commonly implemented within metallurgical studies are compared for samples of SAF 2205 duplex stainless steel. It was found that, while acid etching and electrolytic etching were optimal for the low resolution of optical microscopy, these methods were less suited for analysis by high resolution high-speed AFM. Mechanical and colloidal silica polishing was found to be the optimal method explored, as it provided a gentle etch of the surface allowing for high quality topographic maps of the sample surface.

Nanometre to micrometre length-scale techniques for characterising environmentally-assisted cracking: An appraisal

The appraisal is strongly focussed on challenges associated with the nuclear sector, however these are representative of what is generally encountered by a range of engineering applications. Ensuring structural integrity of key nuclear plant components is essential for both safe and economic operation. Structural integrity assessments require knowledge of the mechanical and physical properties of materials, together with an understanding of mechanisms that can limit the overall operating life. With improved mechanistic understanding comes the ability to develop predictive models of the service life of components. Such models often require parameters which can be provided only by characterisation of processes occurring in situ over a range of scales, with the sub-micrometre-scale being particularly important, but also challenging. This appraisal reviews the techniques currently available to characterise microstructural features at the nanometre to micrometre length-scale that can be used to elucidate mechanisms that lead to the early stages of environmentally-assisted crack formation and subsequent growth. Following an appraisal of the techniques and their application, there is a short discussion and consideration for future opportunities.

A study of dynamic nanoscale corrosion initiation events using HS-AFM

Using HS-AFM measurements it was possible to calculate, and subsequently model, the volumes of metal reacting with respect to time, and so the current densities and ionic fluxes at work. In this manner, the local electrochemistry at nanoscale reaction sites may be reconstructed.

Nanocarbon-scanning probe microscopy synergy: fundamental aspects to nanoscale devices

Scanning probe techniques scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) have emerged as unique local probes for imaging, manipulation, and modification of surfaces at the nanoscale. Exercising the fabrication of atomic and nansocale devices with desired properties have demanded rapid development of scanning probe based nanolithographies. Dip pen nanolithography (DPN) and local anodic oxidation (LAO) have been widely employed for fabricating functional patterns and prototype devices at nanoscale. This review discusses the progress in AFM bias lithography with focus on nanocarbon species on which many functional quantum device structures have been realized using local electrochemical and electrostatic processes. As water meniscus is central to AFM bias lithography, the meniscus formation, estimation and visualization is discussed briefly. A number of graphene-based nanodevices have been realized on the basis AFM bias lithography in the form of nanoribbons, nanorings and quantum dots with sufficiently small dimensions to show quantum phenomena such as conductance fluctuations. Several studies involving graphitic surfaces and carbon nanotubes are also covered. AFM based scratching technique is another promising approach for the fabrication of nanogap electrodes, important in molecular electronics.

Control of the higher eigenmodes of a microcantilever: applications in atomic force microscopy

While conventional techniques in dynamic mode atomic force microscopy typically involve the excitation of the first flexural mode of a microcantilever, situations arise where the excitation of higher modes may result in image artefacts. Strong nonlinear coupling between the cantilever modes in liquid environments may result in image artefacts, limiting the accuracy of the image. Similar observations have been made in high-speed contact mode AFM. To address this issue, we propose the application of the modulated-demodulated control technique to attenuate problematic modes to eliminate the image artefacts. The modulated-demodulated control technique is a high-bandwidth technique, which is well suited to the control of next generation of high-speed cantilevers. In addition to potential improvements in image quality, a high-bandwidth controller may also find application in multifrequency AFM experiments. To demonstrate the high-bandwidth nature of the control technique, we construct an amplitude modulation AFM experiment in air utilizing low amplitude setpoints, which ensures that harmonic generation and nonlinear coupling of the modes result in image artefacts. We then utilize feedback control to highlight the improvement in image quality. Such a control technique appears extremely promising in high-speed atomic force microscopy and is likely to have direct application in AFM in liquids.

Three-dimensional atomic force microscopy: interaction force vector by direct observation of tip trajectory

The prospect of a robust three-dimensional atomic force microscope (AFM) holds significant promise in nanoscience. Yet, in conventional AFM, the tip-sample interaction force vector is not directly accessible. We scatter a focused laser directly off an AFM tip apex to rapidly and precisely measure the tapping tip trajectory in three-dimensional space. This data also yields three-dimensional cantilever spring constants, effective masses, and hence, the tip-sample interaction force components via Newton's second law. Significant lateral forces representing 49 and 13% of the normal force (Fz = 152 ± 17 pN) were observed in common tapping mode conditions as a silicon tip intermittently contacted a glass substrate in aqueous solution; as a consequence, the direction of the force vector tilted considerably more than expected. When addressing the surface of a lipid bilayer, the behavior of the force components differed significantly from that observed on glass. This is attributed to the lateral mobility of the lipid membrane coupled with its elastic properties. Direct access to interaction components Fx, Fy, and Fz provides a more complete view of tip dynamics that underlie force microscope operation and can form the foundation of a three-dimensional AFM in a plurality of conditions.

Opportunities in high-speed atomic force microscopy

The atomic force microscope (AFM) has become integrated into standard characterisation procedures in many different areas of research. Nonetheless, typical imaging rates of commercial microscopes are still very slow, much to the frustration of the user. Developments in instrumentation for "high-speed AFM" (HSAFM) have been ongoing since the 1990s, and now nanometer resolution imaging at video rate is readily achievable. Despite thorough investigation of samples of a biological nature, use of HSAFM instruments to image samples of interest to materials scientists, or to carry out AFM lithography, has been minimal. This review gives a summary of different approaches to and advances in the development of high-speed AFMs, highlights important discoveries made with new instruments, and briefly discusses new possibilities for HSAFM in materials science.

Improving the signal-to-noise ratio of high-speed contact mode atomic force microscopy

During high-speed contact mode atomic force microscopy, higher eigenmode flexural oscillations of the cantilever have been identified as the main source of noise in the resultant topography images. We show that by selectively filtering out the frequencies corresponding to these oscillations in the time domain prior to transforming the data into the spatial domain, significant improvements in image quality can be achieved.