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Carroll SL, Schmidt GM, Waller JS, Graves TA. Evaluating density-weighted connectivity of black bears (Ursus americanus) in Glacier National Park with spatial capture-recapture models. Mov Ecol 2024; 12:8. [PMID: 38263096 DOI: 10.1186/s40462-023-00445-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Improved understanding of wildlife population connectivity among protected area networks can support effective planning for the persistence of wildlife populations in the face of land use and climate change. Common approaches to estimating connectivity often rely on small samples of individuals without considering the spatial structure of populations, leading to limited understanding of how individual movement links to demography and population connectivity. Recently developed spatial capture-recapture (SCR) models provide a framework to formally connect inference about individual movement, connectivity, and population density, but few studies have applied this approach to empirical data to support connectivity planning. METHODS We used mark-recapture data collected from 924 genetic detections of 598 American black bears (Ursus americanus) in 2004 with SCR ecological distance models to simultaneously estimate density, landscape resistance to movement, and population connectivity in Glacier National Park northwest Montana, USA. We estimated density and movement parameters separately for males and females and used model estimates to calculate predicted density-weighted connectivity surfaces. RESULTS Model results indicated that landscape structure influences black bear density and space use in Glacier. The mean density estimate was 16.08 bears/100 km2 (95% CI 12.52-20.6) for females and 9.27 bears/100 km2 (95% CI 7.70-11.14) for males. Density increased with forest cover for both sexes. For male black bears, density decreased at higher grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) densities. Drainages, valley bottoms, and riparian vegetation decreased estimates of landscape resistance to movement for male and female bears. For males, forest cover also decreased estimated resistance to movement, but a transportation corridor bisecting the study area strongly increased resistance to movement presenting a barrier to connectivity. CONCLUSIONS Density-weighed connectivity surfaces highlighted areas important for population connectivity that were distinct from areas with high potential connectivity. For black bears in Glacier and surrounding landscapes, consideration of both vegetation and valley topography could inform the placement of underpasses along the transportation corridor in areas characterized by both high population density and potential connectivity. Our study demonstrates that the SCR ecological distance model can provide biologically realistic, spatially explicit predictions to support movement connectivity planning across large landscapes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L Carroll
- Graduate Degree Program in Ecology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA.
| | - Greta M Schmidt
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, 92182, USA
| | - John S Waller
- Glacier National Park, P.O. Box 128, West Glacier, MT, 59936, USA
| | - Tabitha A Graves
- U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center, PO Box 169, West Glacier, MT, 59936, USA
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Poulin MP, Cherry SG, Merkle JA. Dynamic balancing of risks and rewards in a large herbivore: Further extending predator-prey concepts to road ecology. J Anim Ecol 2023; 92:1954-1965. [PMID: 37462330 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/05/2023]
Abstract
Animal behaviour is shaped by the ability to identify risks and profitably balance the levels of risks encountered with the payoffs experienced. Anthropogenic disturbances like roads generate novel risks and opportunities that wildlife must accurately perceive and respond to. Basic concepts in predator-prey ecology are often used to understand responses of animals to roads (e.g. increased vigilance, selection for cover in their vicinity). However, prey often display complex behaviours such as modulating space use given varying risks and rewards, and it is unclear if such dynamic balancing is used by animals in the context of road crossings. We tested whether animals dynamically balance risks and rewards relative to roads using extensive field-based and GPS collar data from elk in Yoho National Park (British Columbia, Canada), where a major highway completely bisects their range during most of the year. We analysed elk behaviour by combining hidden Markov movement models with a step-selection function framework. Rewards were indexed by a dynamic map of available forage biomass, and risks were indexed by road crossings and traffic volumes. We found that elk generally selected intermediate and high forage biomass, and avoided crossing the road. Most of the time, elk modulated their behaviour given varying risks and rewards. When crossing the highway compared with not crossing, elk selected for greater forage biomass and this selection was stronger as the number of highway crossings increased. However, with traffic volume, elk only balanced foraging rewards when they crossed a single time during a travel sequence. Using a road ecology system, we empirically tested an important component of predator-prey ecology-the ability to dynamically modulate behaviour in response to varying levels of risks and rewards. Such a test articulates how decision-making processes that consider the spatiotemporal variation in risks and rewards allow animals to successfully and profitably navigate busy roads. Applying well-developed concepts in predator-prey theory helps understand how animals respond to anthropogenic disturbances and anticipate the adaptive capacity for individuals and populations to adjust to rapidly changing environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Pier Poulin
- Department of Zoology and Physiology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming, USA
| | - Seth G Cherry
- Parks Canada Agency, Radium Hot Springs, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Jerod A Merkle
- Department of Zoology and Physiology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming, USA
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3
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Gilbert NA, McGinn KA, Nunes LA, Shipley AA, Bernath-Plaisted J, Clare JDJ, Murphy PW, Keyser SR, Thompson KL, Maresh Nelson SB, Cohen JM, Widick IV, Bartel SL, Orrock JL, Zuckerberg B. Daily activity timing in the Anthropocene. Trends Ecol Evol 2023; 38:324-336. [PMID: 36402653 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2022.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Animals are facing novel 'timescapes' in which the stimuli entraining their daily activity patterns no longer match historical conditions due to anthropogenic disturbance. However, the ecological effects (e.g., altered physiology, species interactions) of novel activity timing are virtually unknown. We reviewed 1328 studies and found relatively few focusing on anthropogenic effects on activity timing. We suggest three hypotheses to stimulate future research: (i) activity-timing mismatches determine ecological effects, (ii) duration and timing of timescape modification influence effects, and (iii) consequences of altered activity timing vary biogeographically due to broad-scale variation in factors compressing timescapes. The continued growth of sampling technologies promises to facilitate the study of the consequences of altered activity timing, with emerging applications for biodiversity conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil A Gilbert
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Kate A McGinn
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Laura A Nunes
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Amy A Shipley
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Jacy Bernath-Plaisted
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - John D J Clare
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Penelope W Murphy
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Spencer R Keyser
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Kimberly L Thompson
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv), 04103 Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Germany
| | - Scott B Maresh Nelson
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Jeremy M Cohen
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Ivy V Widick
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Savannah L Bartel
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - John L Orrock
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Benjamin Zuckerberg
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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4
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Babic NL, Johnstone CP, Reljić S, Sergiel A, Huber Đ, Reina RD. Evaluation of physiological stress in free-ranging bears: current knowledge and future directions. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2023; 98:168-190. [PMID: 36176191 PMCID: PMC10086944 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Stress responses, which are mediated by the neurogenic system (NS) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis help vertebrates maintain physiological homeostasis. Fight-or-flight responses are activated by the NS, which releases norepinephrine/noradrenaline and epinephrine/adrenaline in response to immediate stressors, whilst the HPA axis releases glucocorticoid hormones (e.g. cortisol and corticosterone) to help mitigate allostatic load. There have been many studies on stress responses of captive animals, but they are not truly reflective of typical ranges or the types of stressors encountered by free-ranging wildlife, such as responses and adaptation to environmental change, which are particularly important from a conservation perspective. As stress can influence the composition of age and sex classes of free-ranging populations both directly and indirectly, ecological research must be prioritised towards more vulnerable taxa. Generally, large predators tend to be particularly at risk of anthropogenically driven population declines because they exhibit reduced behavioural plasticity required to adapt to changing landscapes and exist in reduced geographic ranges, have small population sizes, low fecundity rates, large spatial requirements and occupy high trophic positions. As a keystone species with a long history of coexistence with humans in highly anthropogenic landscapes, there has been growing concern about how humans influence bear behaviour and physiology, via numerous short- and long-term stressors. In this review, we synthesise research on the stress response in free-ranging bear populations and evaluate the effectiveness and limitations of current methodology in measuring stress in bears to identify the most effective metrics for future research. Particularly, we integrate research that utilised haematological variables, cardiac monitors and Global Positioning System (GPS) collars, serum/plasma and faecal glucocorticoid concentrations, hair cortisol levels, and morphological metrics (primarily skulls) to investigate the stress response in ursids in both short- and long-term contexts. We found that in free-ranging bears, food availability and consumption have the greatest influence on individual stress, with mixed responses to anthropogenic influences. Effects of sex and age on stress are also mixed, likely attributable to inconsistent methods. We recommend that methodology across all stress indicators used in free-ranging bears should be standardised to improve interpretation of results and that a wider range of species should be incorporated in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natarsha L Babic
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, 25 Rainforest Walk, Clayton, 3800, Victoria, Australia
| | - Christopher P Johnstone
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, 25 Rainforest Walk, Clayton, 3800, Victoria, Australia
| | - Slaven Reljić
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Heinzelova 55, Zagreb, 10000, Croatia
| | - Agnieszka Sergiel
- Institute of Nature Conservation, Polish Academy of Sciences, Adama Mickiewicza 33, Krakow, 31120, Poland
| | - Đuro Huber
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Heinzelova 55, Zagreb, 10000, Croatia.,Institute of Nature Conservation, Polish Academy of Sciences, Adama Mickiewicza 33, Krakow, 31120, Poland
| | - Richard D Reina
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, 25 Rainforest Walk, Clayton, 3800, Victoria, Australia
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5
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Leimgruber P, Songsasen N, Stabach JA, Horning M, Reed D, Buk T, Harwood A, Layman L, Mathews C, Vance M, Marinari P, Helmick KE, Delaski KM, Ware LH, Jones JC, Silva JLP, Laske TG, Moraes RN. Providing baseline data for conservation-Heart rate monitoring in captive scimitar-horned oryx. Front Physiol 2023; 14:1079008. [PMID: 36909234 PMCID: PMC9998487 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1079008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Heart rate biologging has been successfully used to study wildlife responses to natural and human-caused stressors (e.g., hunting, landscape of fear). Although rarely deployed to inform conservation, heart rate biologging may be particularly valuable for assessing success in wildlife reintroductions. We conducted a case study for testing and validating the use of subcutaneous heart rate monitors in eight captive scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx dammah), a once-extinct species that is currently being restored to the wild. We evaluated biologger safety and accuracy while collecting long-term baseline data and assessing factors explaining variation in heart rate. None of the biologgers were rejected after implantation, with successful data capture for 16-21 months. Heart rate detection accuracy was high (83%-99%) for six of the individuals with left lateral placement of the biologgers. We excluded data from two individuals with a right lateral placement because accuracies were below 60%. Average heart rate for the six scimitar-horned oryx was 60.3 ± 12.7 bpm, and varied by about 12 bpm between individuals, with a minimum of 31 bpm and a maximum of 188 bpm across individuals. Scimitar-horned oryx displayed distinct circadian rhythms in heart rate and activity. Heart rate and activity were low early in the morning and peaked near dusk. Circadian rhythm in heart rate and activity were relatively unchanged across season, but hourly averages for heart rate and activity were higher in spring and summer, respectively. Variation in hourly heart rate averages was best explained by a combination of activity, hour, astronomical season, ambient temperature, and an interaction term for hour and season. Increases in activity appeared to result in the largest changes in heart rate. We concluded that biologgers are safe and accurate and can be deployed in free-ranging and reintroduced scimitar-horned oryx. In addition to current monitoring practices of reintroduced scimitar-horned oryx, the resulting biologging data could significantly aid in 1) evaluating care and management action prior to release, 2) characterizing different animal personalities and how these might affect reintroduction outcomes for individual animals, and 3) identifying stressors after release to determine their timing, duration, and impact on released animals. Heart rate monitoring in released scimitar-horned oryx may also aid in advancing our knowledge about how desert ungulates adapt to extreme environmental variation in their habitats (e.g., heat, drought).
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Leimgruber
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Nucharin Songsasen
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Jared A Stabach
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Megan Horning
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States.,Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Dolores Reed
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Tara Buk
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Arielle Harwood
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Lawrence Layman
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Christopher Mathews
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Morgan Vance
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Paul Marinari
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Kelly E Helmick
- Department of Conservation Medicine, Smithsonian National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Kristina M Delaski
- Department of Conservation Medicine, Smithsonian National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Lisa H Ware
- Department of Conservation Medicine, Smithsonian National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Julia C Jones
- Department of Conservation Medicine, Smithsonian National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Jose L P Silva
- Department of Statistics, Federal University of Parana, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Timothy G Laske
- Department of Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States.,Cardiac Ablation Solutions, Medtronic Inc., Mounds View, MN, United States
| | - Rosana Nogueira Moraes
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States.,Department of Physiology, Federal University of Parana, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
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6
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Powell RA, Mansfield SA, Rogers LL. Comparison of behaviors of black bears with and without habituation to humans and supplemental research feeding. J Mammal 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyac081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Humans interact with wildlife regularly, mostly without conflict. Interactions between humans and bears, however, have a history of conflict. Using data from female black bears in two populations, we compared behaviors related to a series of hypotheses about habituation and food supplementation via research feeding. We livetrapped bears in the southern boreal forests and cove forests of the Pisgah National Forest, North Carolina, in barrel traps or modified leg-hold snares and outfitted them with very high frequency (VHF) transmitters, for 95 bear-years of data. In the southern boreal forests of Superior National Forest, Minnesota, we habituated bears and outfitted them with VHF collars supplemented with GPS units, for 42 bear-years. Some human residents of the Superior study area fed local black bears and we established a research feeding site. Bears in both populations avoided roads and habituated: Superior bears avoided houses where they were not fed; the study site for Pisgah bears (no habituation or feeding) had too few houses to test for avoidance. Bears in both populations gained weight faster during their active seasons when wild foods were abundant. Habituated, supplemented Superior bears averaged a smaller proportion of a day active, longer activity bouts, and less sinuous movements than did not-habituated or supplemented Pisgah bears. The bears in the two populations did not differ with respect to distances traveled per 2 h or mean lengths of activity bouts. The abundance of wild foods affected time active, distance traveled, and sinuosity of travel by not-habituated or supplemented Pisgah bears. Females in breeding condition in both populations were more active, had longer activity bouts, traveled further, and had more linear travel in spring and early summer while females with cubs pushed these activities into late summer and autumn. This timing pattern for bout length, distance moved, and sinuosity was less pronounced for habituated and research-fed Superior bears than for not-habituated or supplemented Pisgah bears. Thus, habituation to a small number of researchers appeared to not affect many behaviors of bears in our habituated and research-fed Superior population; research feeding appeared to affect some behaviors in a manner consistent with a food supply that had low annual variance. Because we have samples of one for each treatment (one site with habituation and feeding, one site without), our results do not establish that differences documented between the populations were caused by the differences in habituation and feeding. The effects of habituation, research feeding, or other forms of food supplementation on backcountry behaviors of black bears need broader testing across the range of black bears.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger A Powell
- Department of Applied Ecology, North Carolina State University , Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7617 , USA
| | | | - Lynn L Rogers
- Wildlife Research Institute , Ely, Minnesota 55731 , USA
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7
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Marrotte RR, Howe EJ, Beauclerc KB, Potter D, Northrup JM. Explaining detection heterogeneity with finite mixture and non-Euclidean movement in spatially explicit capture-recapture models. PeerJ 2022; 10:e13490. [PMID: 35694380 PMCID: PMC9186326 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Landscape structure affects animal movement. Differences between landscapes may induce heterogeneity in home range size and movement rates among individuals within a population. These types of heterogeneity can cause bias when estimating population size or density and are seldom considered during analyses. Individual heterogeneity, attributable to unknown or unobserved covariates, is often modelled using latent mixture distributions, but these are demanding of data, and abundance estimates are sensitive to the parameters of the mixture distribution. A recent extension of spatially explicit capture-recapture models allows landscape structure to be modelled explicitly by incorporating landscape connectivity using non-Euclidean least-cost paths, improving inference, especially in highly structured (riparian & mountainous) landscapes. Our objective was to investigate whether these novel models could improve inference about black bear (Ursus americanus) density. We fit spatially explicit capture-recapture models with standard and complex structures to black bear data from 51 separate study areas. We found that non-Euclidean models were supported in over half of our study areas. Associated density estimates were higher and less precise than those from simple models and only slightly more precise than those from finite mixture models. Estimates were sensitive to the scale (pixel resolution) at which least-cost paths were calculated, but there was no consistent pattern across covariates or resolutions. Our results indicate that negative bias associated with ignoring heterogeneity is potentially severe. However, the most popular method for dealing with this heterogeneity (finite mixtures) yielded potentially unreliable point estimates of abundance that may not be comparable across surveys, even in data sets with 136-350 total detections, 3-5 detections per individual, 97-283 recaptures, and 80-254 spatial recaptures. In these same study areas with high sample sizes, we expected that landscape features would not severely constrain animal movements and modelling non-Euclidian distance would not consistently improve inference. Our results suggest caution in applying non-Euclidean SCR models when there is no clear landscape covariate that is known to strongly influence the movement of the focal species, and in applying finite mixture models except when abundant data are available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robby R. Marrotte
- Wildlife Research & Monitoring Section, Ministry of Northern Development, Mines, Natural Resources and Forestry, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Eric J. Howe
- Wildlife Research & Monitoring Section, Ministry of Northern Development, Mines, Natural Resources and Forestry, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kaela B. Beauclerc
- Wildlife Research & Monitoring Section, Ministry of Northern Development, Mines, Natural Resources and Forestry, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Derek Potter
- Wildlife Research & Monitoring Section, Ministry of Northern Development, Mines, Natural Resources and Forestry, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Joseph M. Northrup
- Wildlife Research & Monitoring Section, Ministry of Northern Development, Mines, Natural Resources and Forestry, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada,Environmental and Life Sciences Graduate Program, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
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8
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Abstract
Habitat modeling is one of the most common practices in ecology today, aimed at understanding complex associations between species and an array of environmental, bioclimatic, and anthropogenic factors. This review of studies of seven species of terrestrial bears (Ursidae) occupying four continents examines how habitat models have been employed, and the functionality of their predictions for management and conservation. Bear occurrence data have been obtained at the population level, as presence points (e.g., sign surveys or camera trapping), or as locations of individual radio-collared animals. Radio-collars provide greater insights into how bears interact with their environment and variability within populations; they are more commonly used in North America and Europe than in South America and Asia. Salient problematic issues apparent from this review included: biases in presence data; predictor variables being poor surrogates of actual behavioral drivers; predictor variables applied at a biologically inappropriate scale; and over-use of data repositories that tend to detach investigators from the species. In several cases, multiple models in the same area yielded different predictions; new presence data occurred outside the range of predicted suitable habitat; and future range projections, based on where bears presently exist, underestimated their adaptability. Findings here are likely relevant to other taxa.
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10
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Abstract
Abstract
Sleep is important for memory consolidation and maintaining metabolic homeostasis, but sleep can expose animals to inclement weather and predators. Consequently, selection of sleeping sites is important. We tested three sets of hypotheses related to selection of bed sites by female American black bears (Ursus americanus) at two study sites. During 2009–2013, we outfitted 14 female black bears west of Ely, Minnesota, with Global Positioning System collars that reported bear locations every 10 min. We visited 101 bed sites, each identified from clusters of estimated locations where a bear was on site for ≥4 h on two or more occasions, and recorded bed characteristics, forest composition, canopy closure, and ground cover. We matched each bed site with a control site where we collected the same data. During 1987–1991, we outfitted three female black bears south of Ely with very high-frequency transmitter collars and walked with the bears to collect detailed behavioral data. We used the written data records to identify 62 bed sites where bears slept ≥2 h and where bed characteristics were documented. We matched each bed site with a control site approximately 6 h different when the bear was active. Of the bed sites, 132 were used during night and 31 during day. The two study areas differed in the amount of lowland habitats. At both sites, female bears chose bed sites disproportionately in lowland sites with high canopy cover and next to a tree, especially a white pine. Female bears with cubs selected upland bed sites more often than did females without cubs and also more often selected sites adjacent to a tree with coarse bark, which cubs could climb easily. Distances to roads and houses did not affect selection of bed sites by females either with or without cubs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Roger A Powell
- Department of Applied Ecology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7617, USA
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11
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Kautz TM, Fowler NL, Petroelje TR, Beyer DE, Svoboda NJ, Belant JL. Large carnivore response to human road use suggests a landscape of coexistence. Glob Ecol Conserv 2021; 30:e01772. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
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12
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Moraes RN, Laske TG, Leimgruber P, Stabach JA, Marinari PE, Horning MM, Laske NR, Rodriguez JV, Eye GN, Kordell JE, Gonzalez M, Eyring T, Lemons C, Helmick KE, Delaski KM, Ware LH, Jones JC, Songsasen N. Inside out: heart rate monitoring to advance the welfare and conservation of maned wolves ( Chrysocyon brachyurus). Conserv Physiol 2021; 9:coab044. [PMID: 34188936 PMCID: PMC8224209 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coab044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Anthropogenic change is a major threat to individual species and biodiversity. Yet the behavioral and physiological responses of animals to these changes remain understudied. This is due to the technological challenges in assessing these effects in situ. Using captive maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus, n = 6) as a model, we deployed implantable biologgers and collected physiological data on heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) over a 1-year period. To test for links between HR and changes in the environment we analysed HR daily rhythms and responses to potential stressors (e.g. physical restraint, change in housing conditions, short-distance transportation and unfamiliar human presence). The 2-min HR averages ranged from 33 to 250 bpm, with an overall rest average of 73 bpm and a maximum of 296 bpm. On average, HRV was higher in females (227 ± 51 ms) than in males (151 ± 51 ms). As expected, HR increased at dusk and night when animals were more active and in response to stressors. Sudden decreases in HR were observed during transportation in three wolves, suggestive of fear bradycardia. We provide the first non-anesthetic HR values for the species and confirm that behaviour does not always reflect the shifts in autonomic tone in response to perceived threats. Because strong HR responses often were not revealed by observable changes in behaviour, our findings suggest that the number and variety of stressors in ex situ or in situ environments for maned wolves and most wildlife species may be underestimated. Our study also shows that integrating biologging with behavioral observations can provide vital information to guide captive management. Similar technology can be used to advance in situ research for developing more effective welfare, management and conservation plans for the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosana N Moraes
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
- Department of Physiology, Federal University of Parana, Curitiba, PR, 81530-900, Brazil
| | - Timothy G Laske
- Department of Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
- AF Solutions, Medtronic Inc., Mounds View, MN, 55112, USA
| | - Peter Leimgruber
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Jared A Stabach
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Paul E Marinari
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Megan M Horning
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Noelle R Laske
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Juan V Rodriguez
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
- Department of Parks and Recreation, Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning commission, Clinton, MD, 20735, USA
| | - Ginger N Eye
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Jessica E Kordell
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Marissa Gonzalez
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Tom Eyring
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Christopher Lemons
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Kelly E Helmick
- Department of Conservation Medicine, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Kristina M Delaski
- Department of Conservation Medicine, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Lisa H Ware
- Department of Conservation Medicine, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Julia C Jones
- Department of Conservation Medicine, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Nucharin Songsasen
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
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13
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Laske TG, Garshelis DL, Iles TL, Iaizzo PA. An engineering perspective on the development and evolution of implantable cardiac monitors in free-living animals. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2021; 376:20200217. [PMID: 34121460 PMCID: PMC8200647 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2020.0217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The latest technologies associated with implantable physiological monitoring devices can record multiple channels of data (including: heart rates and rhythms, activity, temperature, impedance and posture), and coupled with powerful software applications, have provided novel insights into the physiology of animals in the wild. This perspective details past challenges and lessons learned from the uses and developments of implanted biologgers designed for human clinical application in our research on free-ranging American black bears (Ursus americanus). In addition, we reference other research by colleagues and collaborators who have leveraged these devices in their work, including: brown bears (Ursus arctos), grey wolves (Canis lupus), moose (Alces alces), maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) and southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina). We also discuss the potentials for applications of such devices across a range of other species. To date, the devices described have been used in fifteen different wild species, with publications pending in many instances. We have focused our physiological research on the analyses of heart rates and rhythms and thus special attention will be paid to this topic. We then discuss some major expected step changes such as improvements in sensing algorithms, data storage, and the incorporation of next-generation short-range wireless telemetry. The latter provides new avenues for data transfer, and when combined with cloud-based computing, it not only provides means for big data storage but also the ability to readily leverage high-performance computing platforms using artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms. These advances will dramatically increase both data quantity and quality and will facilitate the development of automated recognition of extreme physiological events or key behaviours of interest in a broad array of environments, thus further aiding wildlife monitoring and management. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Measuring physiology in free-living animals (Part I)’.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy G Laske
- Department of Surgery, University of Minnesota, B172 Mayo, MMC 195, 420 Delaware Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - David L Garshelis
- Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (retired), 1201 E Hwy 2, Grand Rapids, MN 55744, USA
| | - Tinen L Iles
- Department of Surgery, University of Minnesota, B172 Mayo, MMC 195, 420 Delaware Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Paul A Iaizzo
- Department of Surgery, University of Minnesota, B172 Mayo, MMC 195, 420 Delaware Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.,Institute for Engineering in Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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14
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Smith JA, Gaynor KM, Suraci JP. Mismatch Between Risk and Response May Amplify Lethal and Non-lethal Effects of Humans on Wild Animal Populations. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.604973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Human activity has rapidly transformed the planet, leading to declines of animal populations around the world through a range of direct and indirect pathways. Humans have strong numerical effects on wild animal populations, as highly efficient hunters and through unintentional impacts of human activity and development. Human disturbance also induces costly non-lethal effects by changing the behavior of risk-averse animals. Here, we suggest that the unique strength of these lethal and non-lethal effects is amplified by mismatches between the nature of risk associated with anthropogenic stimuli and the corresponding response by wild animals. We discuss the unique characteristics of cues associated with anthropogenic stimuli in the context of animal ecology and evolutionary history to explore why and when animals fail to appropriately (a) detect, (b) assess, and (c) respond to both benign and lethal stimuli. We then explore the costs of over-response to a benign stimulus (Type I error) and under-response to a lethal stimulus (Type II error), which can scale up to affect individual fitness and ultimately drive population dynamics and shape ecological interactions. Finally, we highlight avenues for future research and discuss conservation measures that can better align animal perception and response with risk to mitigate unintended consequences of human disturbance.
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15
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Coronel-Arellano H, Rocha-Ortega M, Gual-Sill F, Martínez-Meyer E, Ramos-Rendón AK, González-Negrete M, Gil-Alarcón G, Zambrano L. Raining feral cats and dogs? Implications for the conservation of medium-sized wild mammals in an urban protected area. Urban Ecosyst 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11252-020-00991-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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16
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiola Iannarilli
- F. Iannarilli (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7018-3557) ✉ , T. W. Arnold (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7920-772X) and J. R. Fieberg (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3180-7021), Dept of Fisheries, Wildlife and Conservation Biology, Univ. of
| | - John Erb
- J. Erb, Minnesota Dept of Natural Resources, Grand Rapids, MN, USA
| | - Todd W. Arnold
- F. Iannarilli (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7018-3557) ✉ , T. W. Arnold (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7920-772X) and J. R. Fieberg (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3180-7021), Dept of Fisheries, Wildlife and Conservation Biology, Univ. of
| | - John R. Fieberg
- F. Iannarilli (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7018-3557) ✉ , T. W. Arnold (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7920-772X) and J. R. Fieberg (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3180-7021), Dept of Fisheries, Wildlife and Conservation Biology, Univ. of
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17
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Boyle SP, Litzgus JD, Lesbarrères D. Limited evidence for negative effects of highway widening on North American large mammals. EUR J WILDLIFE RES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10344-020-01428-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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18
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Gaidica M, Dantzer B. Quantifying the Autonomic Response to Stressors-One Way to Expand the Definition of "Stress" in Animals. Integr Comp Biol 2020; 60:113-125. [PMID: 32186720 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icaa009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantifying how whole organisms respond to challenges in the external and internal environment ("stressors") is difficult. To date, physiological ecologists have mostly used measures of glucocorticoids (GCs) to assess the impact of stressors on animals. This is of course too simplistic as Hans Seyle himself characterized the response of organisms to "noxious stimuli" using multiple physiological responses. Possible solutions include increasing the number of biomarkers to more accurately characterize the "stress state" of animal or just measuring different biomarkers to more accurately characterize the degree of acute or chronic stressors an animal is experiencing. We focus on the latter and discuss how heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) may be better predictors of the degree of activation of the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary system and complement or even replace measures of GCs as indicators of animal health, welfare, fitness, or their level of exposure to stressors. The miniaturization of biological sensor technology ("bio-sensors" or "bio-loggers") presents an opportunity to reassess measures of stress state and develop new approaches. We describe some modern approaches to gathering these HR and HRV data in free-living animals with the aim that heart dynamics will be more integrated with measures of GCs as bio-markers of stress state and predictors of fitness in free-living animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt Gaidica
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Ben Dantzer
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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19
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Zeller KA, Wattles DW, Conlee L, Destefano S. Response of female black bears to a high‐density road network and identification of long‐term road mitigation sites. Anim Conserv 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K. A. Zeller
- Massachusetts Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit University of Massachusetts Amherst MA USA
| | - D. W. Wattles
- Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife Westborough MA USA
| | - L. Conlee
- Missouri Department of Conservation Jefferson MO USA
| | - S. Destefano
- Massachusetts Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit University of Massachusetts Amherst MA USA
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20
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Johnson HE, Lewis DL, Breck SW. Individual and population fitness consequences associated with large carnivore use of residential development. Ecosphere 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Heather E. Johnson
- Alaska Science Center U.S. Geological Survey 4210 University Drive Anchorage Alaska 99508 USA
| | - David L. Lewis
- Colorado Parks and Wildlife 415 Turner Drive Durango Colorado 81303 USA
| | - Stewart W. Breck
- USDA National Wildlife Research Center 4101 La Porte Ave Fort Collins Colorado 80521 USA
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21
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22
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Williams HJ, Taylor LA, Benhamou S, Bijleveld AI, Clay TA, de Grissac S, Demšar U, English HM, Franconi N, Gómez-Laich A, Griffiths RC, Kay WP, Morales JM, Potts JR, Rogerson KF, Rutz C, Spelt A, Trevail AM, Wilson RP, Börger L. Optimizing the use of biologgers for movement ecology research. J Anim Ecol 2019; 89:186-206. [PMID: 31424571 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The paradigm-changing opportunities of biologging sensors for ecological research, especially movement ecology, are vast, but the crucial questions of how best to match the most appropriate sensors and sensor combinations to specific biological questions and how to analyse complex biologging data, are mostly ignored. Here, we fill this gap by reviewing how to optimize the use of biologging techniques to answer questions in movement ecology and synthesize this into an Integrated Biologging Framework (IBF). We highlight that multisensor approaches are a new frontier in biologging, while identifying current limitations and avenues for future development in sensor technology. We focus on the importance of efficient data exploration, and more advanced multidimensional visualization methods, combined with appropriate archiving and sharing approaches, to tackle the big data issues presented by biologging. We also discuss the challenges and opportunities in matching the peculiarities of specific sensor data to the statistical models used, highlighting at the same time the large advances which will be required in the latter to properly analyse biologging data. Taking advantage of the biologging revolution will require a large improvement in the theoretical and mathematical foundations of movement ecology, to include the rich set of high-frequency multivariate data, which greatly expand the fundamentally limited and coarse data that could be collected using location-only technology such as GPS. Equally important will be the establishment of multidisciplinary collaborations to catalyse the opportunities offered by current and future biologging technology. If this is achieved, clear potential exists for developing a vastly improved mechanistic understanding of animal movements and their roles in ecological processes and for building realistic predictive models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah J Williams
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - Lucy A Taylor
- Save the Elephants, Nairobi, Kenya.,Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Simon Benhamou
- Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, CNRS Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Allert I Bijleveld
- NIOZ Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Department of Coastal Systems, Utrecht University, Den Burg, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas A Clay
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Sophie de Grissac
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - Urška Demšar
- School of Geography & Sustainable Development, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Holly M English
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - Novella Franconi
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - Agustina Gómez-Laich
- Instituto de Biología de Organismos Marinos (IBIOMAR), CONICET, Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina
| | - Rachael C Griffiths
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - William P Kay
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - Juan Manuel Morales
- Grupo de Ecología Cuantitativa, INIBIOMA-Universidad Nacional del Comahue, CONICET, Bariloche, Argentina
| | - Jonathan R Potts
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | | | - Christian Rutz
- Centre for Biological Diversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Anouk Spelt
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Bristol, University Walk, UK
| | - Alice M Trevail
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Rory P Wilson
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - Luca Börger
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
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23
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Ditmer MA, Werden LK, Tanner JC, Vincent JB, Callahan P, Iaizzo PA, Laske TG, Garshelis DL. Bears habituate to the repeated exposure of a novel stimulus, unmanned aircraft systems. Conserv Physiol 2019; 7:coy067. [PMID: 30680216 PMCID: PMC6331175 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coy067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2018] [Revised: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/14/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Unmanned aircraft systems (UAS; i.e. 'drones') provide new opportunities for data collection in ecology, wildlife biology and conservation. Yet, several studies have documented behavioral or physiological responses to close-proximity UAS flights. We experimentally tested whether American black bears (Ursus americanus) habituate to repeated UAS exposure and whether tolerance levels persist during an extended period without UAS flights. Using implanted cardiac biologgers, we measured heart rate (HR) of five captive bears before and after the first of five flights each day. Spikes in HR, a measure of stress, diminished across the five flights within each day and over the course of 4 weeks of twice-weekly exposure. We halted flights for 118 days, and when we resumed, HR responses were similar to that at the end of the previous trials. Our findings highlight the capacity of a large mammal to become and remain habituated to a novel anthropogenic stimulus in a relatively short time (3-4 weeks). However, such habituation to mechanical noises may reduce their wariness of other human threats. Also, whereas cardiac effects diminished, frequent UAS disturbances may have other chronic physiological effects that were not measured. We caution that the rate of habituation may differ between wild and captive animals: while the captive bears displayed large initial spikes in HR change (albeit not as large as wild bears), these animals were accustomed to regular exposure to humans and mechanical noises that may have hastened habituation to the UAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Ditmer
- Department of Fisheries, Wildlife & Conservation Biology, University of Minnesota, 135 Skok Hall, 2003 Upper Buford Circle St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Leland K Werden
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, 140 Gortner Laboratory, 1479 Gortner Avenue, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Jessie C Tanner
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, 140 Gortner Laboratory, 1479 Gortner Avenue, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | | | - Peggy Callahan
- Wildlife Science Center, 22830 Sunrise Rd NE, Stacy, MN, USA
| | - Paul A Iaizzo
- Department of Surgery, University of Minnesota, B172 Mayo, MMC 195, 420 Delaware Street SE, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Timothy G Laske
- Department of Surgery, University of Minnesota, B172 Mayo, MMC 195, 420 Delaware Street SE, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - David L Garshelis
- Department of Fisheries, Wildlife & Conservation Biology, University of Minnesota, 135 Skok Hall, 2003 Upper Buford Circle St. Paul, MN, USA
- Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 1201 E Hwy 2, Grand Rapids, MN, USA
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24
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Zeller KA, Wattles DW, Conlee L, DeStefano S. Black bears alter movements in response to anthropogenic features with time of day and season. Mov Ecol 2019; 7:19. [PMID: 31338195 PMCID: PMC6621962 DOI: 10.1186/s40462-019-0166-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND With the growth and expansion of human development, large mammals will increasingly encounter humans, elevating the likelihood of human-wildlife conflicts. Understanding the behavior and movement of large mammals, particularly around human development, is important for crafting effective conservation and management plans for these species. METHODS We used GPS collar data from American black bears (Ursus americanus) to determine how seasonal food resources and human development affected bear movement patterns and resource use across the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. RESULTS We found that though bears moved more and avoided human development during crepuscular and daylight hours than at night, bears preferentially moved through human dominated areas at night. This indicates bears were mitigating the risk of human development by altering their behavior to exploit these areas when human activity is low. This behavioral shift was most prominent in the spring, when natural foods are scarce, and fall, when energetic demands are high. We also observed a high degree of inter-individual variability among our sample of bears. Bears with a higher density of houses in their home ranges (~ 75 houses/km2) displayed less avoidance of human development than more rural bears. Furthermore, bear movement models had different explanatory variables, with preference or avoidance of a variable being dependent on the individual bear. To account for this individuality in our predictive surfaces, we projected the probability of movement for each season and time of day using a spatially weighted surface centered on each bear's home range. CONCLUSIONS We found that black bears in Massachusetts are operating in a landscape of fear and are altering their movement patterns to use developed areas when human activity is low. We also found seasonal and diel differences among individual bears in resource selection during movement. Accounting for these individual, seasonal, and diel differences when assessing movement for large mammals is especially important if predictive surfaces are to be used in identifying areas for conservation and management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A. Zeller
- Massachusetts Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, University of Massachusetts, 160 Holdsworth Way, Amherst, MA 01003 USA
| | - David W. Wattles
- Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife, Westborough, MA USA
| | - Laura Conlee
- Missouri Department of Conservation, Columbia, MO USA
| | - Stephen DeStefano
- U.S. Geological Survey, Massachusetts Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA USA
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25
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Ditmer MA, Noyce KV, Fieberg JR, Garshelis DL. Delineating the ecological and geographic edge of an opportunist: The American black bear exploiting an agricultural landscape. Ecol Modell 2018; 387:205-19. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2018.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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