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Moghadasi A, Yousefinejad S, Soleimani E. False positives and false negatives in benzene biological monitoring. Environ Res 2024; 243:117836. [PMID: 38065394 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.117836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 11/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/06/2024]
Abstract
Benzene is a commonly used industrial chemical that is a significant environmental pollutant. Occupational health specialists and industrial toxicologists are concerned with determining the exact amount of exposure to chemicals in the workplace. There are two main approaches to assess chemical exposure; air monitoring and biological monitoring. Air monitoring has limitations, which biological monitoring overcomes and could be used as a supplement to it. However, there are several factors that influence biological monitoring results. It would be possible to assess exposure more accurately if these factors were taken into account. This study aimed to review published papers for recognizing and discussing parameters that could affect benzene biological monitoring. Two types of effects can be distinguished: positive and negative effects. Factors causing positive effects will increase the metabolite concentration in urine more than expected. Furthermore, the parameters that decrease the urinary metabolite level were referred to as false negatives. From the papers, sixteen influential factors were extracted that might affect benzene biological monitoring results. Identified factors were clarified in terms of their nature and mechanism of action. It is also important to note that some factors influence the quantity and quality of the influence of other factors. As a result of this study, a decision-making protocol was developed for interpreting the final results of benzene biological monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abolfazl Moghadasi
- Student Research Committee, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Department of Occupational Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Saeed Yousefinejad
- Department of Occupational Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.
| | - Esmaeel Soleimani
- Department of Occupational Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.
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Soltanpour Z, Mohammadian Y, Fakhri Y. The concentration of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene in ambient air of the gas stations in Iran: A systematic review and probabilistic health risk assessment. Toxicol Ind Health 2021; 37:134-141. [PMID: 33506745 DOI: 10.1177/0748233720981218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX) has been reported in gas stations. Exposure to BTEX can result in adverse health outcomes in workers such as cancer and neurological effects. The health risk assessments of exposure to BTEX could be useful in choosing suitable control measures. In this review, data from previous studies of gas station environments in Iran were collected from years 2000 to 2020. The health risk assessments were conducted through the estimation of cancer and noncancer risks using a Monte Carlo simulation based on the US Environmental Protection Agency method. The results showed that exposure to BTEX in some cities of Iran was greater than the occupational exposure limits. The results of cancer risk assessments demonstrated that cancer risk was not increased. However, results of noncancer risk assessments demonstrated that neurological toxicity from exposure to BTEX was significant in different cities of Iran. The health risk assessments indicated that workers at gas station are at health risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Soltanpour
- Department of Occupational Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, 48432Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Yousef Mohammadian
- Department of Occupational Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, 48432Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Yadolah Fakhri
- Social Determinants in Health Promotion Research Center, 14656Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran
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Saieva C, Tumino R, Masala G, Frasca G, Salvini S, Giurdanella MC, Ceroti M, Perico A, Zanna I, Cordopatri G, Bavazzano P, Palli D. Urinary 1-Hydroxypyrene and t, t-Muconic ACID as Biomarkers of Exposure to Environmental Pollutants in Two Areas in Italy (Epic-Florence and Ragusa). Tumori 2018; 89:679-86. [PMID: 14870833 DOI: 10.1177/030089160308900612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Aims and background Several chemical compounds included in the group of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and benzene are well-known human carcinogens present in the atmosphere of polluted urban areas. Major sources include vehicle traffic and industrial emissions, but also cigarette smoke. Genotoxic damage derived from exposure to PAHs can be measured in healthy adults by specific assays as PAH-DNA adducts. In the frame of EPIC-Italy, we recently carried out a cross-sectional study in different areas of the country (Palli et al., Int J Cancer, 87: 444-451, 2000) and showed that mean DNA adduct levels varied considerably among different centers, being highest in Florence (a large metropolitan area in Tuscany) and lowest in Ragusa (a small town in Sicily). Methods A subgroup of EPIC volunteers, representative of these two local cohorts, agreed to collect 24-h urine samples, and we measured the excretion of two potential biomarkers of exposure to environmental pollutants: t,t-muconic acid (MA), a metabolite of benzene, and 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP), a metabolite of pyrene. Overall, 69 24-h urine samples were available for analyses. Results The absolute amounts of 1-OHP and MA excreted in the 24-h urine samples were 169.6 ng and 33.8 μg, respectively. Urinary excretion of both metabolites did not vary according to age or area of residence. Strongly significant differences emerged when current smokers were compared to non-smokers for 1-OHP (P = 0.0001) and MA (P = 0.01), thus confirming that smokers are directly exposed to PAHs and benzene from tobacco smoke, with a dose-dependent effect particularly evident for MA. Multivariate analyses showed positive associations of 1-OHP excretion with male sex, low education and being overweight but not with residence in two areas with contrasting levels of urban pollution; MA excretion tended to be higher in Florence. Conclusions These two urinary metabolites are strongly related to tobacco smoke and do not appear to represent reliable biomarkers of exposure to environmental pollutants in the general population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Calogero Saieva
- Molecular and Nutritional Epidemiology Unit, CSPO, Scientific Institute of Tuscany, Florence, Italy
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Price PS, Rey TD, Fontaine DD, Arnold SM. Letter to the editor in response to ‘Low-dose metabolism of benzene in humans: science and obfuscation’ Rappaport et al. (2013). Carcinogenesis 2013; 34:1692-6. [DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgt101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Arnold SM, Angerer J, Boogaard PJ, Hughes MF, O'Lone RB, Robison SH, Schnatter AR. The use of biomonitoring data in exposure and human health risk assessment: benzene case study. Crit Rev Toxicol 2013; 43:119-53. [PMID: 23346981 PMCID: PMC3585443 DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2012.756455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2012] [Revised: 11/30/2012] [Accepted: 12/04/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Abstract A framework of "Common Criteria" (i.e. a series of questions) has been developed to inform the use and evaluation of biomonitoring data in the context of human exposure and risk assessment. The data-rich chemical benzene was selected for use in a case study to assess whether refinement of the Common Criteria framework was necessary, and to gain additional perspective on approaches for integrating biomonitoring data into a risk-based context. The available data for benzene satisfied most of the Common Criteria and allowed for a risk-based evaluation of the benzene biomonitoring data. In general, biomarker (blood benzene, urinary benzene and urinary S-phenylmercapturic acid) central tendency (i.e. mean, median and geometric mean) concentrations for non-smokers are at or below the predicted blood or urine concentrations that would correspond to exposure at the US Environmental Protection Agency reference concentration (30 µg/m(3)), but greater than blood or urine concentrations relating to the air concentration at the 1 × 10(-5) excess cancer risk (2.9 µg/m(3)). Smokers clearly have higher levels of benzene exposure, and biomarker levels of benzene for non-smokers are generally consistent with ambient air monitoring results. While some biomarkers of benzene are specific indicators of exposure, the interpretation of benzene biomonitoring levels in a health-risk context are complicated by issues associated with short half-lives and gaps in knowledge regarding the relationship between the biomarkers and subsequent toxic effects.
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Gagné S. Determination oftrans,trans-muconic acid in workers' urine through ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. Biomed Chromatogr 2012; 27:664-8. [DOI: 10.1002/bmc.2844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Revised: 10/18/2012] [Accepted: 10/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien Gagné
- Institut de recherche Robert-Sauvé en santé et en sécurité du travail; 505 Boul De Maisonneuve Ouest; Montréal; Québec; Canada; H3A 3C2
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Rekhadevi PV, Mahboob M, Rahman MF, Grover P. Determination of genetic damage and urinary metabolites in fuel filling station attendants. Environ Mol Mutagen 2011; 52:310-318. [PMID: 20872828 DOI: 10.1002/em.20622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2009] [Accepted: 07/03/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Fuel (diesel and petrol) constitutes a complex mixture of volatile flammable liquid hydrocarbons among them benzene (BZ), toluene (TOL), and xylene (XYL) are considered to be the most hazardous, predominantly BZ because of its carcinogenic potency. Exposure to these compounds may have an impact on the health of the exposed subjects. Hence, genotoxicity and quantitative analysis of these compounds was performed in blood and urine samples of 200 workers exposed to fuel in filling stations and compared to controls. The level of genetic damage was determined by micronucleus test (MNT) in buccal epithelial cells (BEC) and chromosomal aberrations (CA) assay in peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) of fuel filling station attendants (FFSA) and compared to a matched control group. Urine analysis for BZ and its metabolites, phenol (Ph), trans, trans-Muconic Acid (t, t-MA), and S-Phenyl Mercapturic Acid (S-PMA) was done in all the study subjects. The results of our study revealed that exposure to BTX in petrol vapors induced a statistically significant increase in the frequency of micronuclei (MN) and CA in the exposed subjects than in controls (P < 0.05). There was a significant rise in the levels of urinary BZ, Ph, t, t-MA, and S-PMA in the exposed subjects. Our study highlights the significance of MNT, CA, and urinary metabolites as potential biological exposure indices of genetic damage in FFSA. This study suggests the need for regular monitoring of FFSA for possible exposure to BTX as a precautionary and preventive step to minimize exposure and reduce the associated health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- P V Rekhadevi
- Toxicology Unit, Biology Division, Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad 500 607, Andhra Pradesh, India
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Fustinoni S, Campo L, Mercadante R, Consonni D, Mielzynska D, Bertazzi PA. A quantitative approach to evaluate urinary benzene and S-phenylmercapturic acid as biomarkers of low benzene exposure. Biomarkers 2011; 16:334-45. [DOI: 10.3109/1354750x.2011.561499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Fustinoni
- University of Milan, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Milano, Italy
| | - Laura Campo
- University of Milan, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Milano, Italy
| | - Rosa Mercadante
- University of Milan, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Milano, Italy
| | - Dario Consonni
- University of Milan, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Milano, Italy
| | | | - Pier Alberto Bertazzi
- University of Milan, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Milano, Italy
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Kerzic P, Liu W, Pan M, Fu H, Zhou Y, Schnatter A, Irons R. Analysis of hydroquinone and catechol in peripheral blood of benzene-exposed workers. Chem Biol Interact 2010; 184:182-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2009.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2009] [Revised: 12/10/2009] [Accepted: 12/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Bensefa-colas L, Pineau F, Hadengue P, Gennart J, Choudat D, Conso F. Exposition professionnelle au benzène dans le circuit de distribution des carburants et conséquences pour la surveillance médicale des employés. ARCH MAL PROF ENVIRO 2009; 70:141-151. [DOI: 10.1016/j.admp.2009.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Hoet P, De Smedt E, Ferrari M, Imbriani M, Maestri L, Negri S, De Wilde P, Lison D, Haufroid V. Evaluation of urinary biomarkers of exposure to benzene: correlation with blood benzene and influence of confounding factors. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2009; 82:985-95. [DOI: 10.1007/s00420-008-0381-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2008] [Accepted: 10/21/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Aprea C, Sciarra G, Bozzi N, Pagliantini M, Perico A, Bavazzano P, Leandri A, Carrieri M, Scapellato ML, Bettinelli M, Bartolucci GB. Reference values of urinary trans,trans-muconic acid: Italian Multicentric Study. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 2008; 55:329-340. [PMID: 18214577 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-007-9119-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2007] [Accepted: 12/20/2007] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
This article reports the results of a study, conducted in the framework of the scientific activities of the Italian Society for Reference Values, aimed at defining reference values of urinary trans,trans-muconic acid (t,t-MA) in the general population not occupationally exposed to benzene. t,t-MA concentrations detected in 376 subjects of the resident population in three areas of Italy, two in central (Florence and southern Tuscany) and one in northern Italy (Padua), by three laboratories, compared by repeated interlaboratory controls, showed an interval of 14.4-225.0 microg/L (5th-95th percentile) and a geometric mean of 52.5 microg/L. The concentrations measured were influenced by tobacco smoking in a statistically significant way: Geometric mean concentrations were 44.8 microg/L and 76.1 microg/Ll in nonsmokers (264 subjects) and smokers (112 subjects), respectively. In the nonsmoking population, a significant influence of gender was found when concentrations were corrected for urinary creatinine, geometric mean concentrations being 36.7 microg/g creatinine in males (128 subjects) and 44.7 microg/g creatinine in females (136 subjects). The place of residence of subjects did not seem to influence urinary excretion of the metabolite, although personal inhalation exposure to benzene over a 24-h period showed slightly higher concentrations in Padua and Florence (geometric means of 6.5 microg/m(3) and 6.6 microg/m(3), respectively) than in southern Tuscany (geometric mean of 3.9 microg/m(3)). Concentration of t,t-MA in urine samples collected at the end of personal air sampling showed little relationship to personal inhalation exposure to benzene, confirming the importance of other factors in determining excretion of t,t-MA when concentrations in personal air samples are very low.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Aprea
- Laboratorio di Sanità Pubblica, Azienda USL 7 di Siena, Siena, Italy.
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Fustinoni S, Consonni D, Campo L, Buratti M, Colombi A, Pesatori AC, Bonzini M, Bertazzi PA, Foà V, Garte S, Farmer PB, Levy LS, Pala M, Valerio F, Fontana V, Desideri A, Merlo DF. Monitoring Low Benzene Exposure: Comparative Evaluation of Urinary Biomarkers, Influence of Cigarette Smoking, and Genetic Polymorphisms. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005; 14:2237-44. [PMID: 16172237 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-04-0798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Benzene is a human carcinogen and an ubiquitous environmental pollutant. Identification of specific and sensitive biological markers is critical for the definition of exposure to low benzene level and the evaluation of the health risk posed by this exposure. This investigation compared urinary trans,trans-muconic acid (t,t-MA), S-phenylmercapturic acid, and benzene (U-benzene) as biomarkers to assess benzene exposure and evaluated the influence of smoking and the genetic polymorphisms CYP2E1 (RsaI and DraI) and NADPH quinone oxidoreductase-1 on these indices. Gas station attendants, urban policemen, bus drivers, and two groups of controls were studied (415 subjects). Median benzene exposure was 61, 22, 21, 9 and 6 microg/m(3), respectively, with higher levels in workers than in controls. U-benzene, but not t,t-MA and S-phenylmercapturic acid, showed an exposure-related increase. All the biomarkers were strongly influenced by cigarette smoking, with values up to 8-fold higher in smokers compared with nonsmokers. Significant correlations of the biomarkers with each other and with urinary cotinine were found. A possible influence of genetic polymorphism of CYP2E1 (RsaI and/or DraI) on t,t-MA and U-benzene in subjects with a variant allele was found. Multiple linear regression analysis correlated the urinary markers with exposure, smoking status, and CYP2E1 (RsaI; R(2) up to 0.55 for U-benzene). In conclusion, in the range of investigated benzene levels (<478 micro/m(3) or <0.15 ppm), smoking may be regarded as the major source of benzene intake; among the study indices, U-benzene is the marker of choice for biomonitoring low-level occupational and environmental benzene exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Fustinoni
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Milan, Italy.
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Fustinoni S, Buratti M, Campo L, Colombi A, Consonni D, Pesatori AC, Bonzini M, Farmer P, Garte S, Valerio F, Merlo DF, Bertazzi PA. Urinary t,t-muconic acid, S-phenylmercapturic acid and benzene as biomarkers of low benzene exposure. Chem Biol Interact 2005; 153-154:253-6. [PMID: 15935823 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2005.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
This research compared the capability of urinary trans,trans-muconic acid (t,t-MA), S-phenylmercapturic acid (S-PMA) and benzene excreted in urine (U-benzene) to monitor low benzene exposure and evaluated the influence of smoking habit on these indices. Gasoline attendants, urban policemen, bus drivers and two groups of referents working in two large Italian cities (415 people) were studied. Median benzene exposure was 61, 22, 21, 9 and 6 microg/m3, respectively, with higher levels in workers than in referents. U-benzene, but not t,t-MA and S-PMA, showed an exposure-related increase. All the biomarkers were strongly influenced by cigarette smoking, with values up to five-fold higher in smokers compared to non-smokers. In conclusion, in the range of investigated benzene exposure (<478 microg/m3 or <0.15 ppm), the smoking habit may be regarded as a major source of benzene intake; among the study indices, U-benzene is the marker of choice for the biological monitoring of occupational and environmental exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Fustinoni
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Milan and Fondazione Policlinico, Mangiagalli e Regina Elena, Via S. Barnaba, 8, 20122-Milan, Italy.
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Imbriani M, Ghittori S. Gases and organic solvents in urine as biomarkers of occupational exposure: a review. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2004; 78:1-19. [PMID: 15592680 DOI: 10.1007/s00420-004-0544-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2003] [Accepted: 05/17/2004] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A brief review of urine analysis in studies of occupational exposure to volatile organic compounds and gases is provided. Analysis of exhaled breath for volatile compounds does not have a long history in occupational medicine. A number of studies has been undertaken since the 1980s, and the methods are well enough accepted to be put forward as biological equivalents of threshold limit values (TLVs) for some volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as acetone; methanol; methyl ethyl ketone (MEK); methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK); tetrahydrofurane; dichloromethane. In the last 20 years many scientific articles have shown that the urinary concentrations of unchanged solvents are correlated with environmental exposure and could be used for biological monitoring. The use of urine analysis of unchanged solvents in occupational applications is not yet widespread. Nonetheless, in the short time since its application, a number of important discoveries has been made, and the future appears bright for this branch of analysis. In this paper, the basic concepts and methodology of urine analysis are briefly presented with a critical revision of the literature on this matter. The excretion mechanisms of organic solvents in urine are discussed, with regard to biological variability, and the future directions of research are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Imbriani
- Dipartimento di Medicina Preventiva, Occupazionale e di Comunità, Università degli Studi di Pavia, Pavia, Italy.
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Prado C, Garrido J, Periago JF. Urinary benzene determination by SPME/GC–MS. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2004; 804:255-61. [PMID: 15081918 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2004.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2003] [Revised: 12/18/2003] [Accepted: 01/12/2004] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The urinary excretion of the unmetabolized benzene seems to be a very good index for biomonitoring benzene in occupationally exposed people. The use of solid phase microextraction (SPME) offers important advantages for its determination. Several variables can influence the benzene extraction process. Experimental design methodology was used to estimate the influence of the different variables and to evaluate the simultaneous effect of the more significant variables on the benzene extraction. The results showed that sample temperature, sample volume and their interaction were the more significant factors. A model was found that relates the amount of benzene extracted with the studied variables. The more adequate working conditions were: extraction temperature 15 degrees C, incubation time 1 min, extraction time 1 min and 2.5 ml of sample volume. The results indicate that this method is capable of providing sensitive and accurate results for the biomonitoring of benzene in urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Prado
- Instituto de Seguridad y Salud Laboral, Apartado 35, E-30120 El Palmar, Murcia, Spain.
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Abstract
The authors have developed a dynamic headspace (purge-and-trap) gas chromatographic method, with photoionization detection, for the determination of benzene (C6H6), toluene (C7H8), ethylbenzene (C8H10), and isomeric (o-, m-, p-) xylenes (C8H10) (BTEX) in urine. Detection limits ranged between 15 and 35 ng/l, relative standard deviations between 0.2 and 10%, and accuracy between 80 and 100%. The primary objective of this study was to use this new method to establish baseline concentration data for BTEX in the urine of the general population of Zagreb, Croatia. A second objective was to evaluate the effect of cigarette smoking on those baseline values. BTEX were analyzed in the urine of 72 subjects (36 nonsmokers and 36 smokers) without occupational exposure to BTEX. The nonsmokers had measurable BTEX in their urine, except for ethylbenzene in 13 and o-xylene in 15 of the samples. Values for BTEX were markedly higher among smokers than nonsmokers. Because the sources of BTEX exposure are commonly derived (i.e., vehicle exhausts and smoking), their values in subjects' urine were significantly intercorrelated. Levels of toluene and o-xylene were correlated significantly with the number of cigarettes smoked per day. The use of purge-and-trap gas chromatography with photoionization detection to determine BTEX in urine offers a convenient approach for biological monitoring of the general population. Study data provide referent values for BTEX in urine, which can be used as biomarkers for environmental exposures. Smoking contributes significantly to the urinary concentration of BTEX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ljiljana Skender
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb, Croatia.
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Abstract
The aim of the study was to evaluate cytochrome P-450 dependent hepatic monooxygenases system and urinary excretions of phenol and muconic acid in animals subjected to acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) orally and benzene by inhalations. ASA increased urinary excretion of muconic acid although it did not affect the urinary level of phenol. Benzene decreased concentrations of P-450 and b(5) cytochromes and the activities of NADPH-cytochrome P-450 and NADH-cytochrome b(5) reductases. In rats exposed to ASA and benzene simultaneously the concentration of both cytochromes and the activity of the cytochrome dependent reductases was higher than in the rats exposed only to benzene and sometimes exceeded the control group values.
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Verdina A, Galati R, Falasca G, Ghittori S, Imbriani M, Tomei F, Marcellini L, Zijno A, Vecchio VD. Metabolic polymorphisms and urinary biomarkers in subjects with low benzene exposure. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2001; 64:607-618. [PMID: 11766168 DOI: 10.1080/152873901753246214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The effect of some common metabolic polymorphisms on the rate of trans,trans-muconic acid (TMA) and S-phenylmercapturic acid (SPMA) excretion was investigated in 169 policemen exposed to low benzene levels (<10 microg/m3) during the work shift. End-shift urinary concentrations of TMA and SPMA, normalized to unmetabolized blood benzene concentration, were used as indicators of individual metabolic capacity. CYP2E1, NQO1, GSTM1, and CSTT1 polymorphisms were analyzed in all subjects by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) restriction fragment length (RFL). The results obtained show significantly elevated levels of TMA and SPMA in urine of smokers compared to nonsmokers, whereas no correlation with environmental benzene was observed. TMA/blood benzene ratio was partially modulated by glutathione S-transferase (GST) genotypes, with significantly higher values in null individuals (GSTM1 and GSTT1 combined). However, a greater fraction of total variance of TMA/blood benzene in the study population was explained by other independent variables, that is, season of sampling, smoking habits, and gender. Variance in SPMA/blood benzene ratio was only associated with smoking and occupation, whereas no significant role was observed for the metabolic polymorphisms considered. These results suggest that in a population exposed to very low benzene concentrations, urinary TMA and SPMA levels are affected to a limited extent by metabolic polymorphisms, whereas other factors, such as gender, lifestyle, or other confounders, may account for a larger fraction of the interindividual variability of these biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Verdina
- Regina Elena Institute for Cancer Research, Rome, Italy
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Marrubini G, Coccini T, Manzo L. Direct analysis of urinary trans,trans-muconic acid by coupled column liquid chromatography and spectrophotometric ultraviolet detection: method applicability to human urine. J Chromatogr B Biomed Sci Appl 2001; 758:295-303. [PMID: 11486840 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(01)00194-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
A coupled column liquid chromatographic (LC-LC) method for the direct analysis in human urine of the ring opened benzene metabolite, trans,trans-muconic acid (t,t-MA) is described. The method was tested using urine samples collected from five refinery workers exposed to concentrations of airborne benzene (0.2-0.5 ppm), and from non-exposed volunteers. The analytical columns used were of 50 x 4.6 mm I.D. packed with 3 microm p.s. Microspher C18 material as the first column (C-1), and a 100 x 4.6 mm I.D. column packed with 3 microm p.s. Hypersil ODS material as the second one (C-2). The mobile phases applied consisted, respectively, of methanol-0.074% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) in water (4:96, v/v) on C-1, and of methanol-0.074% TFA in water (10:90, v/v) on C-2. Under these conditions t,t-MA eluted 15 min after injection. The present method, coupling the LC-LC technique with UV detection at 264 nm, permits the quantitation of t,t-MA directly in urine at levels as low as 0.05 mg/l. The determination is performed with a sample throughput of 2 h(-1) requiring only pH adjustment and centrifugation of the sample. Calibration plots of standard additions of t,t-MA to pooled urine taken from five non-exposed subjects were linear (r>0.999) over a wide concentration range (0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 mg/l). The precision of the method (RSD) was in the range of 0.5 to 3.8%, and the within-session repeatability on workers urine samples (levels 0.06, 0.1, 0.2, 1.0 mg/l) was in the range of 3 to 8%. The present method improves the applicability of routine t,t-MA analysis, where it is most desirable that a large number of biological samples can be processed automatically or with minimal human labour, at low cost, and with a convenient turn-around time.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Marrubini
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Pavia, Italy.
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Marrubini G, Hogendoorn EA, Coccini T, Manzo L. Improved coupled column liquid chromatographic method for high-speed direct analysis of urinary trans,trans-muconic acid, as a biomarker of exposure to benzene. J Chromatogr B Biomed Sci Appl 2001; 751:331-9. [PMID: 11236089 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(00)00497-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A coupled column liquid chromatographic (LC-LC) method for high-speed analysis of the urinary ring-opened benzene metabolite, trans,trans-muconic acid (t,t-MA) is described. Efficient on-line clean-up and concentration of t,t-MA from urine samples was obtained using a 3 microm C18 column (50x4.6 mm I.D.) as the first column (C-1) and a 5 microm C18 semi-permeable surface (SPS) column (150x4.6 mm I.D.) as the second column (C-2). The mobile phases applied consisted, respectively, of methanol-0.05% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) in water (7:93, v/v) on C-1, and of methanol-0.05% TFA in water (8:92, v/v) on C-2. A rinsing mobile phase of methanol-0.05% TFA in water (25:75, v/v) was used for cleaning C-1 in between analysis. Under these conditions t,t-MA eluted 11 min after injection. Using relatively non-specific UV detection at 264 nm, the selectivity of the assay was enhanced remarkably by the use of LC-LC allowing detection of t,t-MA at urinary levels as low as 50 ng/ml (S/N>9). The study indicated that t,t-MA analysis can be performed by this procedure in less than 20 min requiring only pH adjustment and filtration of the sample as pretreatment. Calibration plots of standard additions of t,t-MA to blank urine over a wide concentration range (50-4000 ng/ml) showed excellent linearity (r>0.999). The method was validated using urine samples collected from rats exposed to low concentrations of benzene vapors (0.1 ppm for 6 h) and by repeating most of the analyses of real samples in the course of measurement sequences. Both the repeatability (n=6, levels 64 and 266 ng/ml) and intra-laboratory reproducibility (n=6, levels 679 and 1486 ng/ml) were below 5%.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Marrubini
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Pavia, Italy.
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Waidyanatha S, Rothman N, Fustinoni S, Smith MT, Hayes RB, Bechtold W, Dosemeci M, Guilan L, Yin S, Rappaport SM. Urinary benzene as a biomarker of exposure among occupationally exposed and unexposed subjects. Carcinogenesis 2001; 22:279-86. [PMID: 11181449 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/22.2.279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Urinary benzene (UB) was investigated as a biomarker of exposure among benzene-exposed workers and unexposed subjects in Shanghai, China. Measurements were performed via headspace solid phase microextraction of 0.5 ml of urine specimens followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. This assay is simple and more sensitive than other methods (detection limit 0.016 microg benzene/l urine). The median daily benzene exposure was 31 p.p.m. (range 1.65-329 p.p.m.). When subjects were divided into controls (n = 41), those exposed to < or =31 p.p.m. benzene (n = 22) and >31 p.p.m. benzene (n = 20), the median UB levels were 0.069, 4.95 and 46.1 microg/l, respectively (Spearman r = 0.879, P < 0.0001). A linear relationship was observed between the logarithm of UB and the logarithm of benzene exposure in exposed subjects according to the following equation: ln(UB, microg/l) = 0.196 + 0.709 ln (exposure, p.p.m.) (r = 0.717, P < 0.0001). Considering all subjects, linear relationships were also observed between the logarithm of UB and the corresponding logarithms of four urinary metabolites of benzene, namely t,t-muconic acid (r = 0.938, P < 0.0001), phenol (r = 0.826, P < 0.0001), catechol (r = 0.812, P < 0.0001) and hydroquinone (r = 0.898, P: < 0.0001). Ratios of individual metabolite levels to total metabolites versus UB provide evidence of competitive inhibition of CYP450 enzymes leading to increased production of phenol and catechol at the expense of hydroquinone and muconic acid. Among control subjects UB was readily detected with a mean level of 0.145 microg/l (range 0.027-2.06 microg/l), compared with 5.63 microg/l (range 0.837-26.38 microg/l) in workers exposed to benzene below 10 p.p.m. (P < 0.0001). This suggests that UB is a good biomarker for exposure to low levels of benzene.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Waidyanatha
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7400, USA
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