Low cation coordination in oxide melts

Atomic-Layer-Deposited Aluminum Oxide Thin Films Probed with X-ray Scattering and Compared to Molecular Dynamics and Density Functional Theory Models

A better understanding of amorphous aluminum oxide's structure and electronic properties is obtained through combined experimental and computational approaches. Grazing incidence X-ray scattering measurements were carried out on aluminum oxide thin films grown using thermal atomic layer deposition. The corresponding pair distribution functions (PDFs) showed structures similar to previously reported PDFs of solid-state amorphous alumina and molten alumina. Structural models based on crystalline alumina polymorphs (PDFgui) and amorphous alumina (molecular dynamics, MD) were examined for structural comparisons to the experimental PDF data. Smaller MD models were optimized and verified against larger models to allow for quantum chemical electronic structure calculations. The electronic structure of the amorphous alumina models yields additional insight into the band structure and electronic defects present in amorphous alumina that are not present in crystalline samples.

Octahedral oxide glass network in ambient pressure neodymium titanate

Rare-earth titanates form very fragile liquids that can be made into glasses with useful optical properties. We investigate the atomic structure of 83TiO₂-17Nd₂O₃ glass using pair distribution function (PDF) analysis of X-ray and neutron diffraction with double isotope substitutions for both Ti and Nd. Six total structure factors are analyzed (5 neutron + 1 X-ray) to obtain complementary sensitivities to O and Ti/Nd scattering, and an empirical potential structure refinement (EPSR) provides a structural model consistent with the experimental measurements. Glass density is estimated as 4.72(13) g cm⁻³, consistent with direct measurements. The EPSR model indicates nearest neighbor interactions for Ti-O at \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\overline{r}_{TiO}$$\end{document}r¯TiO = 1.984(11) Å with coordination of \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$n_{TiO}$$\end{document}nTiO = 5.72(6) and for Nd-O at \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\overline{r}_{NdO}$$\end{document}r¯NdO = 2.598(22) Å with coordination of \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$n_{NdO}$$\end{document}nNdO = 7.70(26), in reasonable agreement with neutron first order difference functions for Ti and Nd. The titanate glass network comprises a mixture of distorted Ti-O₅ and Ti-O₆ polyhedra connected via 71% corner-sharing and 23% edge-sharing. The O-Ti coordination environments include 15% nonbridging O-Ti₁, 51% bridging O-Ti₂, and 32% tricluster O-Ti₃. This structure is highly unusual for oxide glasses melt-quenched at ambient pressure, as it consists of Ti-O_x predominantly in octahedral (with nearly no tetrahedral) coordination.

Hard x-ray methods for studying the structure of amorphous thin films and bulk glassy oxides

High-energy photon diffraction minimizes many of the corrections associated with laboratory x-ray diffractometers, and enables structure factor measurements to be made over a wide range of momentum transfers. The method edges us closer toward an ideal experiment, in which coordination numbers can be extracted without knowledge of the sample density. Three case studies are presented that demonstrate new hard x-ray methods for studying the structure of glassy and amorphous materials. First, the methodology and analysis of high-energy grazing incidence on thin films is discussed for the case of amorphous In₂O₃. The connectivity of irregular InO₆polyhedra are shown to exist in face-, edge- and corner-shared configurations in the approximate ratio of 1:2:3. Secondly, the technique of high-energy small and wide angle scattering has been carried out on laser heated and aerodynamically levitated samples of silica-rich barium silicate (20BaO:80SiO₂), from the single phase melt at 1500^oC to the phase separated glass at room temperature. Based on Ba-O coordination numbers of 6 to 7, it is argued that the although the potential of Ba is ionic, it is weak enough to cause the liquid-liquid immiscibility to become metastable. Lastly, high-energy small and wide angle scattering has also been applied to high water content (up to 12 wt.%) samples of hydrous SiO₂glass quenched from 1500^oC at 4 GPa. An increase of Si₁-O₂correlations at 4.3 Å is found to be consistent with an increase in the population of three-membered SiO₄rings at the expense of larger rings.

Anomalous structure transition in undercooled melt regulates polymorphic selection in barium titanate crystallization

The crystallization processes of titanates are central to the fabrication of optical and electrical crystals and glasses, but their rich polymorphism is not fully understood. Here, we show when and how polymorphic selection occurs during the crystallization of barium titanate (BaTiO₃, BT) using in situ high energy synchrotron X-ray diffraction and ab initio molecular dynamic simulation. An anomalous structure transition is found in molten BT during cooling across the cubic-hexagonal transition temperature, which enables nucleation selection of BT by manipulating the undercooling: a cubic phase is preferred if nucleation is triggered at large undercooling, whereas a hexagonal phase is promoted at small undercooling. We further reveal that the nucleation selection between the cubic and the hexagonal phase is regulated by the intrinsic structure property of the melt, in particular, the degree of polymerization between Ti-O polyhedra. These findings provide an innovative perspective to link the polymorphic crystallization to the non-isomorphic structure transition of the melt beyond the conventional cognition of structural heredity.

In Situ High-Temperature Synchrotron Diffraction Studies of (Fe,Cr,Al)3O4 Spinels

The modeling of a loss-of-coolant-accident scenario involving nuclear fuels with FeCrAl cladding materials in consideration to replace a Zircaloy requires knowledge of the thermodynamics of oxidized structures. At temperatures higher than 1500 °C, oxidation of FeCrAl alloys forms (Fe,Cr,Al)₃O₄ spinels. In situ high-energy X-ray diffraction in a conical nozzle levitator installed at beamline 6-ID-D of the APS was used to study the structural evolution of the oxides as a function of the temperature. Single-phase (spinel) and multiphase (spinel-corundum-FeAlO₃) regions are mapped as a function of the temperature for three different compositions of FeCrAl oxidation products. The thermal expansion coefficients and cation distribution in the spinel structure have been refined. The temperature at which complete melting of the fuel cladding is expected has been determined by the liquidus temperatures of the oxidized products to be between 1657 and 1834 °C in a 20% O₂/Ar atmosphere using the cooling trace method. The liquidus temperature increases with increasing Al and Cr content in the spinel phase.

Molten barium titanate: a high-pressure liquid silicate analogue

The structure of molten BaTiO₃ has been measured using laser heating, aerodynamic levitation and a combination of neutron diffraction with Ti isotope substitution, x-ray diffraction and spectroscopy. All measurements indicate a Ti-O coordination of n _TiO  =  4.4(2), far lower than the perovskite or hexagonal crystalline forms. However, n _TiO  >  4 suggests structural analogy with molten silicates at high pressures. We introduce methodology for ascertaining such analogies and demonstrate similarity with molten CaSiO₃ at upper mantle pressures circa 5 GPa. Although some topological differences exist, we propose that planetary melt analogues provide rich insight into important processes relevant to hot exoplanets and Earth's early history.

Temperature gradients for thermophysical and thermochemical property measurements to 3000 °C for an aerodynamically levitated spheroid

This study examines thermal gradients in ceramic oxide spheroids being aerodynamically levitated in a conical nozzle levitator (CNL) system equipped with a CO₂ laser (10.6 µm wavelength). The CNL system is a versatile piece of equipment that can easily be coupled with advanced thermophysical and thermochemical measuring devices, such as diffraction/scattering (X-ray and neutron), nuclear magnetic resonance, and calorimetry, for the analysis of bulk spheroidal solids and liquids. The thermal gradients of a series of single crystal, polycrystalline solids, and liquid spheroids have been measured spatially in the CNL system, by means of a disappearing filament pyrometer (800-3000 °C) and by X-ray diffraction with reference to an internal standard (Pt: 800-1600 °C). The thermal gradient in a levitated sample being heated by a laser from the top can be minimized by: (i) maximizing the sphericity, (ii) maximizing the density, and (iii) minimizing microstructural features. A spheroid with these properties can be manufactured via machining a perfect sphere from a highly dense, chemically and phase pure pellet. These properties promote rotation of the sample about multiple axes in the air stream, enabling homogeneous heating. This homogeneous heating is the dominant factor in reducing thermal gradients in solid state samples. It was found that the thermal gradient in an ∼3 mm diameter solid sample could be reduced from 1000 °C to 30 °C, by having a perfectly spherical shape that could rotate on multiple axes in a high velocity gas stream (∼1500-2000 cm³/min). These findings will allow accurate thermophysical and thermochemical property measurements of solids in situ at high temperatures, using the CNL system.

A suite-level review of the neutron powder diffraction instruments at Oak Ridge National Laboratory

The suite of neutron powder diffractometers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) utilizes the distinct characteristics of the Spallation Neutron Source and High Flux Isotope Reactor to enable the measurements of powder samples over an unparalleled regime at a single laboratory. Full refinements over large Q ranges, total scattering methods, fast measurements under changing conditions, and a wide array of sample environments are available. This article provides a brief overview of each powder instrument at ORNL and details the complementarity across the suite. Future directions for the powder suite, including upgrades and new instruments, are also discussed.

Intrinsic charge trapping in amorphous oxide films: status and challenges

We review the current understanding of intrinsic electron and hole trapping in insulating amorphous oxide films on semiconductor and metal substrates. The experimental and theoretical evidences are provided for the existence of intrinsic deep electron and hole trap states stemming from the disorder of amorphous metal oxide networks. We start from presenting the results for amorphous (a) HfO₂, chosen due to the availability of highest purity amorphous films, which is vital for studying their intrinsic electronic properties. Exhaustive photo-depopulation spectroscopy measurements and theoretical calculations using density functional theory shed light on the atomic nature of electronic gap states responsible for deep electron trapping observed in a-HfO₂. We review theoretical methods used for creating models of amorphous structures and electronic structure calculations of amorphous oxides and outline some of the challenges in modeling defects in amorphous materials. We then discuss theoretical models of electron polarons and bi-polarons in a-HfO₂ and demonstrate that these intrinsic states originate from low-coordinated ions and elongated metal-oxygen bonds in the amorphous oxide network. Similarly, holes can be captured at under-coordinated O sites. We then discuss electron and hole trapping in other amorphous oxides, such as a-SiO₂, a-Al₂O₃, a-TiO₂. We propose that the presence of low-coordinated ions in amorphous oxides with electron states of significant p and d character near the conduction band minimum can lead to electron trapping and that deep hole trapping should be common to all amorphous oxides. Finally, we demonstrate that bi-electron trapping in a-HfO₂ and a-SiO₂ weakens Hf(Si)-O bonds and significantly reduces barriers for forming Frenkel defects, neutral O vacancies and O^2- ions in these materials. These results should be useful for better understanding of electronic properties and structural evolution of thin amorphous films under carrier injection conditions.

Precise implications for real-space pair distribution function modeling of effects intrinsic to modern time-of-flight neutron diffractometers

Total scattering and pair distribution function (PDF) methods allow for detailed study of local atomic order and disorder, including materials for which Rietveld refinements are not traditionally possible (amorphous materials, liquids, glasses and nanoparticles). With the advent of modern neutron time-of-flight (TOF) instrumentation, total scattering studies are capable of producing PDFs with ranges upwards of 100–200 Å, covering the correlation length scales of interest for many materials under study. Despite this, the refinement and subsequent analysis of data are often limited by confounding factors that are not rigorously accounted for in conventional analysis programs. While many of these artifacts are known and recognized by experts in the field, their effects and any associated mitigation strategies largely exist as passed-down `tribal' knowledge in the community, and have not been concisely demonstrated and compared in a unified presentation. This article aims to explicitly demonstrate, through reviews of previous literature, simulated analysis and real-world case studies, the effects of resolution, binning, bounds, peak shape, peak asymmetry, inconsistent conversion of TOF to d spacing and merging of multiple banks in neutron TOF data as they directly relate to real-space PDF analysis. Suggestions for best practice in analysis of data from modern neutron TOF total scattering instruments when using conventional analysis programs are made, as well as recommendations for improved analysis methods and future instrument design.

Corium lavas: structure and properties of molten UO2-ZrO2 under meltdown conditions

In the exceedingly rare event of nuclear reactor core meltdown, uranium dioxide fuel reacts with Zircaloy cladding to produce eutectic melts which can subsequently be oxidized by coolant/moderator water. Oxidized corium liquids in the xUO₂·(100 − x)ZrO₂ system were produced via laser melting of UO₂-ZrO₂ mixtures to temperatures in excess of 3000 K. Contamination was avoided by floating the droplets on a gas stream within an aerodynamic levitator and in-situ high-energy x-ray diffraction experiments allowed structural details to be elucidated. Molecular dynamics simulations well reproduced diffraction and density data, and show less compositional variation in thermal expansion and viscosity than suggested by existing measurements. As such, corium liquids maintain their highly penetrating nature irrespective of the amount of oxidized cladding dissolved in the molten fuel. Metal-oxygen coordination numbers vary with both composition and temperature. The former is due to mismatch in native values, n_UO(x = 100) ≈ 7 and n_ZrO(x = 0) ≈ 6, and the requirement for oxygen site stabilization. The latter provides a thermal expansion mechanism.

Probing of Triply Coordinated Oxygen in Amorphous Al2O3

Although anomalous melt properties have been attributed to the presence of triply coordinated oxygen (^[3]O), the presence of ^[3]O in covalent amorphous oxides has not been revealed experimentally; such verification is the Holy Grail in the study of the physics and chemistry of glasses. We report the first ¹⁷O NMR spectrum for amorphous Al₂O₃ and reveal the hidden nature of ^[3]O. The detailed NMR characteristics of the oxygen tricluster are distinct from those estimated for the crystalline analogs, thus indicating its unique structure. This unambiguous evidence of the presence of ^[3]O allows us to microscopically constrain its glass-forming ability and unique two-step crystallization paths of amorphous Al₂O₃ through the annihilation of glassy ^[3]O with multiple ^[5]Al species.

The Structure of Liquid and Amorphous Hafnia

Understanding the atomic structure of amorphous solids is important in predicting and tuning their macroscopic behavior. Here, we use a combination of high-energy X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction, and molecular dynamics simulations to benchmark the atomic interactions in the high temperature stable liquid and low-density amorphous solid states of hafnia. The diffraction results reveal an average Hf–O coordination number of ~7 exists in both the liquid and amorphous nanoparticle forms studied. The measured pair distribution functions are compared to those generated from several simulation models in the literature. We have also performed ab initio and classical molecular dynamics simulations that show density has a strong effect on the polyhedral connectivity. The liquid shows a broad distribution of Hf–Hf interactions, while the formation of low-density amorphous nanoclusters can reproduce the sharp split peak in the Hf–Hf partial pair distribution function observed in experiment. The agglomeration of amorphous nanoparticles condensed from the gas phase is associated with the formation of both edge-sharing and corner-sharing HfO_6,7 polyhedra resembling that observed in the monoclinic phase.

Experimental investigations and phase-field simulations of triple-phase-separation kinetics within liquid ternary Co-Cu-Pb immiscible alloys

The phase-separation kinetics and microstructure evolution mechanisms of liquid ternary Co_{43}Cu_{40}Pb_{17} immiscible alloys are investigated by both the drop tube technique and phase-field method. Two successive phase separations take place during droplet falling and lead to the formation of a three-phase three-layer core-shell structure composed of a Co-rich core, a Cu-rich middle layer, and a Pb-rich shell. The Pb-rich shell becomes more and more conspicuous as droplet diameter decreases. Meanwhile, the Co-rich core center gradually moves away from the core-shell center. Theoretical analyses show that a larger temperature gradient inside a smaller alloy droplet induces the accelerated growth of the surface segregation shell during triple-phase separation. The residual Stokes motion and the asymmetric Marangoni convection result in the appearance of an eccentric Co-rich core and the core deviation degree is closely related to the droplet size and initial velocity. A three-dimensional phase-field model of ternary immiscible alloys, which considers the successive phase separations under the combined effects of Marangoni convection and surface segregation, is proposed to explore the formation mechanisms of three-phase core-shell structures. The simulated core-shell morphologies are consistent with the experimental observations, which verifies the model's validity in reproducing the core-shell dynamic evolution. Numerical results reveal that the development of three-phase three-layer core-shell structures can be attributed to the primary and then secondary phase separations dominated simultaneously by Marangoni convection and surface segregation. Furthermore, the effects of droplet temperature gradient on the growth kinetics of the surface segregation shell are analyzed in the light of phase-field theory.

The structure of liquid alkali nitrates and nitrites

State of the art high energy X-ray diffraction experiments and simulation models (employing a description of charge transfer) are applied to pure molten alkali nitrates and nitrites and uncover significant emerging structure.

From atomic structure to excess entropy: a neutron diffraction and density functional theory study of CaO-Al₂O₃-SiO₂ melts

Calcium aluminosilicate CaO-Al2O3-SiO2 (CAS) melts with compositions (CaO-SiO2)(x)(Al2O3)(1-x) for x  <  0.5 and (Al2O3)(x)(SiO2)(1-x) for x ≥ 0.5 are studied using neutron diffraction with aerodynamic levitation and density functional theory molecular dynamics modelling. Simulated structure factors are found to be in good agreement with experimental structure factors. Local atomic structures from simulations reveal the role of calcium cations as a network modifier, and aluminium cations as a non-tetrahedral network former. Distributions of tetrahedral order show that an increasing concentration of the network former Al increases entropy, while an increasing concentration of the network modifier Ca decreases entropy. This trend is opposite to the conventional understanding that increasing amounts of network former should increase order in the network liquid, and so decrease entropy. The two-body correlation entropy S2 is found to not correlate with the excess entropy values obtained from thermochemical databases, while entropies including higher-order correlations such as tetrahedral order, O-M-O or M-O-M bond angles and Q(N) environments show a clear linear correlation between computed entropy and database excess entropy. The possible relationship between atomic structures and excess entropy is discussed.

Topological ordering in liquid UO2

A molecular dynamics model of liquid UO2 that is in good agreement with recent high-energy x-ray diffraction data has been analyzed using the Bhatia-Thornton formalism. A pre-peak appears in the topological structure factor S NN(Q) at Q  =  1.85(1)Å(-1) which is not present in the more common, element specific Faber-Ziman partial structure factors. A radical Voronoi tessellation of the 3D molecular dynamics model shows the presence of a wide distribution of clusters, consistent with presence of highly mobile oxygen atoms. However, 4-fold Voronoi polyhedra (n 4) are found to dominate the structure and the majority of clusters can be described by the distribution n 3  ⩽  n 4  ⩾  n 5. It is argued that an open network of 4-fold Voronoi polyhedra could explain the origin of the pre-peak in S NN(Q) and the topological ordering observed in liquid UO2.

Size-and phase-dependent structure of copper(ii) oxide nanoparticles

Core (3 nm diameter) and outer surface layer (0.5 nm width) of a CuO nanoparticle of 4 nm in diameter.

Atomic and electronic structures of an extremely fragile liquid

The structure of high-temperature liquids is an important topic for understanding the fragility of liquids. Here we report the structure of a high-temperature non-glass-forming oxide liquid, ZrO2, at an atomistic and electronic level. The Bhatia-Thornton number-number structure factor of ZrO2 does not show a first sharp diffraction peak. The atomic structure comprises ZrO5, ZrO6 and ZrO7 polyhedra with a significant contribution of edge sharing of oxygen in addition to corner sharing. The variety of large oxygen coordination and polyhedral connections with short Zr-O bond lifetimes, induced by the relatively large ionic radius of zirconium, disturbs the evolution of intermediate-range ordering, which leads to a reduced electronic band gap and increased delocalization in the ionic Zr-O bonding. The details of the chemical bonding explain the extremely low viscosity of the liquid and the absence of a first sharp diffraction peak, and indicate that liquid ZrO2 is an extremely fragile liquid.

Molten uranium dioxide structure and dynamics

Uranium dioxide (UO2) is the major nuclear fuel component of fission power reactors. A key concern during severe accidents is the melting and leakage of radioactive UO2 as it corrodes through its zirconium cladding and steel containment. Yet, the very high temperatures (>3140 kelvin) and chemical reactivity of molten UO2 have prevented structural studies. In this work, we combine laser heating, sample levitation, and synchrotron x-rays to obtain pair distribution function measurements of hot solid and molten UO2. The hot solid shows a substantial increase in oxygen disorder around the lambda transition (2670 K) but negligible U-O coordination change. On melting, the average U-O coordination drops from 8 to 6.7 ± 0.5. Molecular dynamics models refined to this structure predict higher U-U mobility than 8-coordinated melts.