Metabolic syndrome in type 1 diabetes and its association with diabetes complications

Molecular mechanism and intervention measures of microvascular complications in diabetes

Objective

In this article, the epidemiology, molecular mechanism of occurrence and development, risk factors, and treatment of diabetic microvascular complications such as diabetic nephropathy, diabetic retinopathy, and diabetic peripheral neuropathy were discussed, providing the theoretical basis for more accurate elucidation of the pathogenesis and treatment of diabetic microvascular complications.

Methods

The electronic database of PubMed was searched, and retrieved papers were screened for eligibility by two independent reviewers. Data were extracted using a standardized data extraction form and the quality of included papers was assessed.

Results

Thirty-eight articles were included. Diabetes nephropathy, diabetes peripheral neuropathy, and diabetes retinopathy are the most common and serious microvascular complications of diabetes in clinical patients. Renin-angiotensin system blockers, beta drugs, statins, antivascular endothelial growth factor drugs, and antioxidants can inhibit the occurrence of microvascular complications in diabetes.

Conclusions

However, there has been no breakthrough in the treatment of diabetic microvascular complications. Therefore, prevention of diabetic microvascular complications is more important than treatment.

The Arylamine N-Acetyltransferases as Therapeutic Targets in Metabolic Diseases Associated with Mitochondrial Dysfunction

In humans, there are two arylamine N-acetyltransferase genes that encode functional enzymes (NAT1 and NAT2) as well as one pseudogene, all of which are located together on chromosome 8. Although they were first identified by their role in the acetylation of drugs and other xenobiotics, recent studies have shown strong associations for both enzymes in a variety of diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes. There is growing evidence that this association may be causal. Consistently, NAT1 and NAT2 are shown to be required for healthy mitochondria. This review discusses the current literature on the role of both NAT1 and NAT2 in mitochondrial bioenergetics. It will attempt to relate our understanding of the evolution of the two genes with biologic function and then present evidence that several major metabolic diseases are influenced by NAT1 and NAT2. Finally, it will discuss current and future approaches to inhibit or enhance NAT1 and NAT2 activity/expression using small-molecule drugs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The arylamine N-acetyltransferases (NATs) NAT1 and NAT2 share common features in their associations with mitochondrial bioenergetics. This review discusses mitochondrial function as it relates to health and disease, and the importance of NAT in mitochondrial function and dysfunction. It also compares NAT1 and NAT2 to highlight their functional similarities and differences. Both NAT1 and NAT2 are potential drug targets for diseases where mitochondrial dysfunction is a hallmark of onset and progression.

Association of Endotoxemia with Low-Grade Inflammation, Metabolic Syndrome and Distinct Response to Lipopolysaccharide in Type 1 Diabetes

The association of endotoxemia with metabolic syndrome (MS) and low-grade inflammation in type 1 diabetes (T1D) is little-studied. We investigated the levels of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP), endogenous anti-endotoxin core antibodies (EndoCAb IgG and IgM) and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) in 74 T1D patients with different MS statuses and 33 control subjects. Within the T1D group, 31 patients had MS. These subjects had higher levels of LPS compared to patients without MS (MS 0.42 (0.35-0.56) or no MS 0.34 (0.3-0.4), p = 0.009). MS was associated with LPS/HDL (OR = 6.5 (2.1; 20.0), p = 0.036) and EndoCAb IgM (OR = 0.32 (0.11; 0.93), p = 0.036) in patients with T1D. LBP (β = 0.30 (0.09; 0.51), p = 0.005), EndoCAb IgG (β = 0.29 (0.07; 0.51), p = 0.008) and the LPS/HDL ratio (β = 0.19 (0.03; 0.41, p = 0.084) were significantly associated with log-transformed hsCRP in T1D. Higher levels of hsCRP and EndoCAb IgG were observed in T1D compared to the control (p = 0.002 and p = 0.091, respectively). In contrast to the situation in the control group, LPS did not correlate with LBP, EndoCAb, leukocytes or HDL in T1D. To conclude, endotoxemia is associated with low-grade inflammation, MS and a distinct response to LPS in T1D.

New perspectives in diabetic neuropathy

Diabetes prevalence continues to climb with the aging population. Type 2 diabetes (T2D), which constitutes most cases, is metabolically acquired. Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN), the most common microvascular complication, is length-dependent damage to peripheral nerves. DPN pathogenesis is complex, but, at its core, it can be viewed as a state of impaired metabolism and bioenergetics failure operating against the backdrop of long peripheral nerve axons supported by glia. This unique peripheral nerve anatomy and the injury consequent to T2D underpins the distal-to-proximal symptomatology of DPN. Earlier work focused on the impact of hyperglycemia on nerve damage and bioenergetics failure, but recent evidence additionally implicates contributions from obesity and dyslipidemia. This review will cover peripheral nerve anatomy, bioenergetics, and glia-axon interactions, building the framework for understanding how hyperglycemia and dyslipidemia induce bioenergetics failure in DPN. DPN and painful DPN still lack disease-modifying therapies, and research on novel mechanism-based approaches is also covered.

Comparison of coronary artery calcium score and cardiovascular risk-stratification by European Society of Cardiology Guidelines and Steno Type 1 Risk Engine in statin-naïve adults with type 1 diabetes

BACKGROUND

Coronary artery calcium (CAC) is a marker of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (CVD). However, for patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D), its relationship with T1D-specific cardiovascular (CV) risk-stratification tools is unknown.

AIMS

Assess prevalence of CAC and evaluate relationship between CAC and T1D-specific CV risk-stratification methods in T1D.

METHODS

Cross-sectional study of adults with T1D age 20-60 years, statin-naïve and no history of CVD. Data was obtained from electronic medical records and by interview. Presence of CAC was assessed using non-contrast cardiac computed tomography and quantified by Agatston Units (AU). CV risk-stratification was assessed using the 2019 European Society of Cardiology (ESC) Guidelines and the Steno T1 Risk Engine (ST1RE).

RESULTS

85 patients were included with mean age 35.4 ± 10.3 years, HbA1c 8.3 ± 1.5 % and T1D duration 17.0 ± 10.1 years. 67 patients (78.9 %) had a CAC score of 0 AU, 17 (20.0 %) >0-100 AU, and one (1.2 %) >100 AU. Duration of T1D (p = 0.009), body mass index (p = 0.029), neuropathy (p = 0.016) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels (p = 0.016) were independently associated with a positive CAC score on multivariate analysis. Positive predictive value for a positive CAC score was 85.7 % for the ST1RE high risk category and 31.3 % for the 2019 ESC Guidelines very high risk category.

CONCLUSIONS

One-fifth of this T1D cohort had a positive CAC score. The ST1RE was superior in identifying positive CAC compared to the 2019 ESC Guidelines. Further studies are required to elucidate the role of CAC in personalising CV risk-stratification and statin initiation in T1D.

Long-term cardiovascular prognosis of patients with type 1 diabetes after myocardial infarction

Background

To explore long-term cardiovascular prognosis after myocardial infarction (MI) among patients with type 1 diabetes.

Methods

Patients with type 1 diabetes surviving 90 days after MI (n = 1508; 60% male, mean age = 62.1 years) or without any type of diabetes (n = 62,785) in Finland during 2005–2018 were retrospectively studied using multiple national registries. The primary outcome of interest was a combined major adverse cardiovascular event (MACE; cardiovascular death, recurrent MI, ischemic stroke, or heart failure hospitalization) studied with a competing risk Fine-Gray analyses. Median follow-up was 3.9 years (maximum 12 years). Differences between groups were balanced by multivariable adjustments and propensity score matching (n = 1401 patient pairs).

Results

Cumulative incidence of MACE after MI was higher in patients with type 1 diabetes (67.6%) compared to propensity score-matched patients without diabetes (46.0%) (sub-distribution hazard ratio [sHR]: 1.94; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.74–2.17; p < 0.0001). Probabilities of cardiovascular death (sHR 1.81; p < 0.0001), recurrent MI (sHR 1.91; p < 0.0001), ischemic stroke (sHR 1.50; p = 0.0003), and heart failure hospitalization (sHR 1.98; p < 0.0001) were higher in patients with type 1 diabetes. Incidence of MACE was higher in diabetes patients than in controls in subgroups of men and women, patients aged < 60 and ≥ 60 years, revascularized and non-revascularized patients, and patients with and without atrial fibrillation, heart failure, or malignancy.

Conclusions

Patients with type 1 diabetes have notably poorer long-term cardiovascular prognosis after an MI compared to patients without diabetes. These results underline the importance of effective secondary prevention after MI in patients with type 1 diabetes.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12933-022-01608-3.

Linking the Fasting Blood Glucose Level to Short-Term-Exposed Particulate Constituents and Pollution Sources: Results from a Multicenter Cross-Sectional Study in China

Ambient PM_2.5 (fine particulate matter with aerodynamic diameters ≤ 2.5 μm) is thought to be associated with the development of diabetes, but few studies traced the effects of PM_2.5 components and pollution sources on the change in the fasting blood glucose (FBG). In the present study, we assessed the associations of PM_2.5 constituents and their sources with the FBG in a general Chinese population aged over 40 years. Exposure to PM_2.5 was positively associated with the FBG level, and each interquartile range (IQR) increase in a lag period of 30 days (18.4 μg/m³) showed the strongest association with an elevated FBG of 0.16 mmol/L (95% confidence interval: 0.04, 0.28). Among various constituents, increases in exposed elemental carbon, organic matter, arsenic, and heavy metals such as silver, cadmium, lead, and zinc were associated with higher FBG, whereas barium and chromium were associated with lower FBG levels. The elevated FBG level was closely associated with the PM_2.5 from coal combustion, industrial sources, and vehicle emissions, while the association with secondary sources was statistically insignificant. Improving air quality by tracing back to the pollution sources would help to develop well-directed policies to protect human health.

Glucose-Lowering Therapy beyond Insulin in Type 1 Diabetes: A Narrative Review on Existing Evidence from Randomized Controlled Trials and Clinical Perspective

Background: In Type 1 diabetes (T1D), according to the most recent guidelines, the everyday glucose-lowering treatment is still restricted to the use of subcutaneous insulin, while multiple therapeutic options exist for Type 2 diabetes (T2D). Methods: For this narrative review we unsystematically screened PubMed and Embase to identify clinical trials which investigated glucose-lowering agents as an adjunct to insulin treatment in people with T1D. Published studies up to March 2022 were included. We discuss the safety and efficacy in modifying cardiovascular risk factors for each drug, the current status of research, and provide a clinical perspective. Results: For several adjunct agents, in T1D, the scientific evidence demonstrates improvements in HbA1c, reductions in the risk of hypoglycemia, and achievements of lower insulin requirements, as well as positive effects on cardiovascular risk factors, such as blood lipids, blood pressure, and weight. As the prevalence of obesity, the major driver for double diabetes, is rising, weight and cardiovascular risk factor management is becoming increasingly important in people with T1D. Conclusions: Adjunct glucose-lowering agents, intended to be used in T2D, bear the potential to beneficially impact on cardiovascular risk factors when investigated in the T1D population and are suggested to be more extensively considered as potentially disease-modifying drugs in the future and should be investigated for hard cardiovascular endpoints.

Metabolic Syndrome in Patients With Diabetes Mellitus

Aim

Our study aims to assess the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MS) in patients with diabetes mellitus, identify its determinants, and determine the correlation between MS and degenerative complications.

Method

A retrospective, descriptive and analytic study was conducted at the Endocrinology, Diabetology, and Nutrition department of the Hassan II University Hospital in Fez, over the period between January 2009 and January 2019. We included in our study all type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients. The presence of metabolic syndrome was defined according to the criteria of the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) and American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (AHA / NHLBI) Joint Scientific Statement (2009). The data were entered in Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corporation. 2018). and analyzed using SPSS software (IBM Corp. Released 2015. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 23.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp).

Result

A total of 1034 patients were included in this study; 78.7% were type 2 diabetics (T2D) and 21.3% were type 1 diabetics (T1D). The average age was 52,06 ± 17,33 years in T2D and 27,04 ± 9,66 years in T1D. 65,5% were females. The prevalence of metabolic syndrome was 78.4% for T2D, and 27.3% for T1D. The most common abnormality was high blood pressure in T2D (87.7%), and visceral obesity in T1D (68.3%). The most common triad was the association of increased waist circumference, hypertension, and diabetes (in 25,5% of T2D and 20% of T1D). By comparing the population of diabetics with metabolic syndrome (MS) and those without, we noticed a significant difference (p<0.05) concerning age, gender, all components of MS (high blood pressure, abdominal obesity, hyper triglyceridemia (TG), and hypo high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C). Diabetic retinopathy and ischemic heart disease were the only chronic complications correlated with MS (p <0.05).

Conclusion

High prevalence of metabolic syndrome in diabetic patients. Its screening and the specific treatment of its various components are essential in order to reduce the complications which jeopardize the functional as well as the vital prognosis of these patients.

Visceral Adiposity Index, Triglyceride/High-Density Lipoprotein Ratio, and Lipid Accumulation Product Index to Discriminate Metabolic Syndrome Among Adult Type 1 Diabetes Patients

Background: Obesity and metabolic syndrome (MetS) are growing problems in type 1 diabetic patients; these can influence clinical complications and also treatment regimens. Visceral adipose tissue inflammation plays an important role in cardiovascular complications. Visceral adiposity index (VAI), lipid accumulation product index (LAP), and triglyceride (TG)/high-density lipoprotein (HDL) ratio have been strongly correlated with insulin resistance and visceral adipose tissue amount in previous studies. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate and compare the usefulness of these indices to detect MetS in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). Materials and Methods: Patients with T1DM and gender- and age-matched controls were included in this cross-sectional study. MetS was defined using both International Diabetes Federation (IDF), World Health Organization (WHO), and National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP ATP III) criteria. T1DM patients were divided into two groups according to the IDF criteria. VAI, LAP, and TG/HDL ratio were calculated for all patients. Groups were compared accordingly. Results: One hundred twenty-six patients with T1DM were included in the study. Increased VAI was observed in association with MetS. Patients with MetS (32.2%) had the highest VAI than healthy controls (8.21 ± 8.86; 3.49 ± 2.73, respectively, P < 0.01). For determining MetS in type 1 diabetes, the cutoff value of VAI was 2.65 [area under the curve (AUC) = 0.837, sensitivity 80.0%, specificity 72.8%], LAP was 27.57 (AUC = 0.842, sensitivity 80.0%, specificity74.0%), TG/HDL ratio was 2.18 (AUC = 0.826, sensitivity 75.0%, specificity 74.0%), each P < 0.001. Conclusions: MetS becomes increasingly common in T1DM. VAI, LAP, and TG/HDL ratio were useful for predicting MetS in patients with T1DM.

Global prevalence of metabolic syndrome among patients with type I diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The presence of metabolic syndrome among diabetes patients is frequent and is associated with an increased incidence of chronic complications and mortality. Despite several studies have been conducted, there is no overall estimation on the prevalence of metabolic syndrome among type 1 diabetic patients. Therefore, this study aimed to estimate the pooled prevalence of metabolic syndrome among patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus.

METHODS

Medline via PubMed, CINAHL, ScienceDirect, Ovid, Google Scholar, ResearchGate and African Journals Online were searched by limiting publication period from January 2005 to October 2020. Data were extracted with a standardized format prepared in Microsoft Excel and exported to Stata 16.0 for analyses. The I² statistic was used to check heterogeneity across the included studies. DerSimonian and Laird random-effects model was applied to estimate pooled prevalence and 95% confidence interval across studies. Funnel plot symmetry, Begg's test and Egger's regression test were used to determine the presence of publication bias. Subgroup and sensitivity analysis as well as meta-regression were conducted to explore the potential sources of heterogeneity. The study protocol is registered on PROSPERO with reference number: CRD42020213435.

RESULTS

In this meta-analysis, a total of 27 studies with 45,811 study participants were included. The pooled prevalence of metabolic syndrome was 23.7% with substantial heterogeneity (I² = 98.2%; P < 0.001). Geographical-based subgroup analysis revealed that the highest prevalence was observed in Australia (27.3%). As per meta-analysis of 17 studies, the pooled prevalence of metabolic syndrome in female type 1 diabetes patients (25.9%) was slightly higher than male T1DM patients (22.5%).

CONCLUSION

Nearly a quarter of the type 1 diabetes mellitus patients were affected by metabolic syndrome. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the prevention and control of the epidemic and for the reduction of the morbidity and mortality associated with metabolic syndrome among type 1 diabetes mellitus patients.