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Sharma N, Vacher J, Allison JP. TLR1/2 ligand enhances antitumor efficacy of CTLA-4 blockade by increasing intratumoral Treg depletion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:10453-62. [PMID: 31076558 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1819004116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune checkpoint inhibitors such as anti-CTLA-4 antibody are widely accepted therapeutic options for many cancers, but there is still a considerable gap in achieving their full potential. We explored the potential of activating the innate and adaptive immune pathways together to improve tumor reduction and survival outcomes. We treated a mouse model of melanoma with intratumoral injections of Toll-like receptor 1/2 (TLR1/2) ligand Pam3CSK4 plus i.p. injections of anti-CTLA-4 antibody. This combination treatment enhanced antitumor immune responses both qualitatively and quantitatively over anti-CTLA-4 alone, and its efficacy depended on CD4 T cells, CD8 T cells, Fcγ receptor IV, and macrophages. Interestingly, our results suggest a unique mechanism by which TLR1/2 ligand increased Fcγ receptor IV expression on macrophages, leading to antibody-dependent macrophage-mediated depletion of regulatory T cells in the tumor microenvironment and increasing efficacy of anti-CTLA-4 antibody in the combination treatment. This mechanism could be harnessed to modulate the clinical outcome of anti-CTLA-4 antibodies and possibly other antibody-based immunotherapies.
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Inic-Kanada A, Stojanovic M, Marinkovic E, Becker E, Stein E, Lukic I, Djokic R, Schuerer N, Hegemann JH, Barisani-Asenbauer T. A Probiotic Adjuvant Lactobacillus rhamnosus Enhances Specific Immune Responses after Ocular Mucosal Immunization with Chlamydial Polymorphic Membrane Protein C. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0157875. [PMID: 27636704 PMCID: PMC5026373 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0157875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in the development of chlamydia vaccines, using live-attenuated or ultraviolet light-inactivated chlamydia, are paving the way for new possibilities to oppose the societal challenges posed by chlamydia-related diseases, such as blinding trachoma. An effective subunit vaccine would mitigate the risks associated with the use of a whole-cell vaccine. Our rationale for the design of an efficient subunit vaccine against Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) is based on the membrane proteins involved in the initial Ct-host cell contact and on the route of immunization that mimics the natural infection process (i.e., via the ocular mucosa). The first aim of our study was to characterize the specific conjunctival and vaginal immune responses following eye drop immunization in BALB/c mice, using the N-terminal portion of the Ct serovar E polymorphic membrane protein C (N-PmpC) as the subunit vaccine antigen. Second, we aimed to examine the adjuvant properties of the probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus (LB) when formulated with N-PmpC. N-PmpC applied alone stimulated the production of N-PmpC- and Ct serovar B-specific antibodies in serum, tears and vaginal washes, whereas the combination with LB significantly enhanced these responses. The N-PmpC/LB combination initiated a T cell response characterized by an elevated percentage of CD25+ T cells and CD8+ effector T cells, enhanced CD4+ T-helper 1 skewing, and increased regulatory T cell responses. Together, these results show that eye drop vaccination with combined use of N-PmpC and a live probiotic LB stimulates specific cellular and humoral immune responses, not only locally in the conjunctiva but also in the vaginal mucosa, which could be a promising approach in Ct vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Inic-Kanada
- OCUVAC – Center of Ocular Inflammation and Infection, Laura Bassi Centres of Expertise, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marijana Stojanovic
- Department of Research and Development, Institute of Virology, Vaccines and Sera – TORLAK, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Emilija Marinkovic
- Department of Research and Development, Institute of Virology, Vaccines and Sera – TORLAK, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Elisabeth Becker
- Institut für Funktionelle Genomforschung der Mikroorganismen, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, Gebäude 25.02.U1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Elisabeth Stein
- OCUVAC – Center of Ocular Inflammation and Infection, Laura Bassi Centres of Expertise, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ivana Lukic
- Department of Research and Development, Institute of Virology, Vaccines and Sera – TORLAK, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Radmila Djokic
- Department of Research and Development, Institute of Virology, Vaccines and Sera – TORLAK, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Nadine Schuerer
- OCUVAC – Center of Ocular Inflammation and Infection, Laura Bassi Centres of Expertise, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Johannes H. Hegemann
- Institut für Funktionelle Genomforschung der Mikroorganismen, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, Gebäude 25.02.U1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Talin Barisani-Asenbauer
- OCUVAC – Center of Ocular Inflammation and Infection, Laura Bassi Centres of Expertise, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- * E-mail:
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López-Abente J, Correa-Rocha R, Pion M. Functional Mechanisms of Treg in the Context of HIV Infection and the Janus Face of Immune Suppression. Front Immunol 2016; 7:192. [PMID: 27242797 PMCID: PMC4871867 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Accepted: 05/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulatory T cells (Tregs) play an important role in infections, by modulating host immune responses and avoiding the overreactive immunity that in the case of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection leads to a marked erosion and deregulation of the entire immune system. Therefore, the suppressive function of Treg in HIV-infected patients is critical because of their implication on preventing the immune hyperactivation, even though it could also have a detrimental effect by suppressing HIV-specific immune responses. In recent years, several studies have shown that HIV-1 can directly infect Treg, disturbing their phenotype and suppressive capacity via different mechanisms. These effects include Foxp3 and CD25 downregulation, and the impairment of suppressive capacity. This review describes the functional mechanisms of Treg to modulate immune activation during HIV infection, and how such control is no longer fine-tune orchestrated once Treg itself get infected. We will review the current knowledge about the HIV effects on the Treg cytokine expression, on pathways implying the participation of different ectoenzymes (i.e., CD39/CD73 axis), transcription factors (ICER), and lastly on cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), one of the keystones in Treg-suppressive function. To define which are the HIV effects upon these regulatory mechanisms is crucial not only for the comprehension of immune deregulation in HIV-infected patients but also for the correct understanding of the role of Tregs in HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacobo López-Abente
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, "Gregorio Marañón" Health Research Institute (IISGM) , Madrid , Spain
| | - Rafael Correa-Rocha
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, "Gregorio Marañón" Health Research Institute (IISGM) , Madrid , Spain
| | - Marjorie Pion
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, "Gregorio Marañón" Health Research Institute (IISGM) , Madrid , Spain
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Klenner L, Hafezi W, Clausen BE, Lorentzen EU, Luger TA, Beissert S, Kühn JE, Loser K. Cutaneous RANK–RANKL Signaling Upregulates CD8-Mediated Antiviral Immunity during Herpes simplex Virus Infection by Preventing Virus-Induced Langerhans Cell Apoptosis. J Invest Dermatol 2015; 135:2676-87. [DOI: 10.1038/jid.2015.225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2015] [Revised: 05/11/2015] [Accepted: 06/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Khan AA, Srivastava R, Chentoufi AA, Geertsema R, Thai NT, Dasgupta G, Osorio N, Kalantari M, Nesburn AB, Wechsler SL, BenMohamed L. Therapeutic immunization with a mixture of herpes simplex virus 1 glycoprotein D-derived “asymptomatic” human CD8+ T-cell epitopes decreases spontaneous ocular shedding in latently infected HLA transgenic rabbits: association with low frequency of local PD-1+ TIM-3+ CD8+ exhausted T cells. J Virol 2015; 89:6619-32. [PMID: 25878105 DOI: 10.1128/JVI.00788-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Most blinding ocular herpetic disease is due to reactivation of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) from latency rather than to primary acute infection. No herpes simplex vaccine is currently available for use in humans. In this study, we used the HLA-A*02:01 transgenic (HLA Tg) rabbit model of ocular herpes to assess the efficacy of a therapeutic vaccine based on HSV-1 gD epitopes that are recognized mainly by CD8(+) T cells from "naturally" protected HLA-A*02:01-positive, HSV-1-seropositive healthy asymptomatic (ASYMP) individuals (who have never had clinical herpes disease). Three ASYMP CD8(+) T-cell epitopes (gD(53-61), gD(70-78), and gD(278-286)) were linked with a promiscuous CD4(+) T-cell epitope (gD(287-317)) to create 3 separate pairs of CD4-CD8 peptides, which were then each covalently coupled to an Nε-palmitoyl-lysine moiety, a Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR-2) ligand. This resulted in the construction of 3 CD4-CD8 lipopeptide vaccines. Latently infected HLA Tg rabbits were immunized with a mixture of these 3 ASYMP lipopeptide vaccines, delivered as eye drops in sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). The ASYMP therapeutic vaccination (i) induced HSV-specific CD8(+) T cells that prevent HSV-1 reactivation ex vivo from latently infected explanted trigeminal ganglia (TG), (ii) significantly reduced HSV-1 shedding detected in tears, (iii) boosted the number and function of HSV-1 gD epitope-specific CD8(+) T cells in draining lymph nodes (DLN), conjunctiva, and TG, and (iv) was associated with fewer exhausted HSV-1 gD-specific PD-1(+) TIM-3+ CD8(+) T cells. The results underscore the potential of an ASYMP CD8(+) T-cell epitope-based therapeutic vaccine strategy against recurrent ocular herpes. IMPORTANCE Seventy percent to 90% of adults harbor herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1), which establishes lifelong latency in sensory neurons of the trigeminal ganglia. This latent state sporadically switches to spontaneous reactivation, resulting in viral shedding in tears. Most blinding herpetic disease in humans is due to reactivation of HSV-1 from latency rather than to primary acute infection. To date, there is no licensed therapeutic vaccine that can effectively stop or reduce HSV-1 reactivation from latently infected sensory ganglia and the subsequent shedding in tears. In the present study, we demonstrated that topical ocular therapeutic vaccination of latently infected HLA transgenic rabbits with a lipopeptide vaccine that contains exclusively human “asymptomatic” CD8(+) T-cell epitopes successfully decreased spontaneous HSV-1 reactivation, as judged by a significant reduction in spontaneous shedding in tears. The findings should guide the clinical development of a safe and effective T-cell-based therapeutic herpes vaccine.
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Farid M, Agrawal A, Fremgen D, Tao J, Chuyi H, Nesburn AB, BenMohamed L. Age-related Defects in Ocular and Nasal Mucosal Immune System and the Immunopathology of Dry Eye Disease. Ocul Immunol Inflamm 2014; 24:327-47. [PMID: 25535823 DOI: 10.3109/09273948.2014.986581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Dry eye disease (DED) is a prevalent public health concern that affects up to 30% of adults and is particularly chronic and severe in the elderly. Two interconnected mechanisms cause DED: (1) an age-related dysfunction of lacrimal and meibomian glands, which leads to decreased tear production and/or an increase in tear evaporation; and (2) an age-related uncontrolled inflammation of the surface of the eye triggered by yet-to-be-determined internal immunopathological mechanisms, independent of tear deficiency and evaporation. In this review we summarize current knowledge on animal models that mimic both the severity and chronicity of inflammatory DED and that have been reliably used to provide insights into the immunopathological mechanisms of DED, and we provide an overview of the opportunities and limitations of the rabbit model in investigating the role of both ocular and nasal mucosal immune systems in the immunopathology of inflammatory DED and in testing novel immunotherapies aimed at delaying or reversing the uncontrolled age-related inflammatory DED.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjan Farid
- a Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology , Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine , Irvine , California , USA
| | - Anshu Agrawal
- b Division of Basic and Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine , University of California Irvine, School of Medicine , Irvine , California , USA
| | - Daniel Fremgen
- a Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology , Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine , Irvine , California , USA
| | - Jeremiah Tao
- a Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology , Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine , Irvine , California , USA
| | - He Chuyi
- a Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology , Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine , Irvine , California , USA
| | - Anthony B Nesburn
- a Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology , Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine , Irvine , California , USA
| | - Lbachir BenMohamed
- a Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology , Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine , Irvine , California , USA .,c Department of Molecular Biology , University of California Irvine, School of Medicine , Irvine , California , USA .,d Biochemistry and Institute for Immunology, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine , Irvine , California , USA
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Uyangaa E, Patil AM, Eo SK. Prophylactic and therapeutic modulation of innate and adaptive immunity against mucosal infection of herpes simplex virus. Immune Netw 2014; 14:187-200. [PMID: 25177251 PMCID: PMC4148489 DOI: 10.4110/in.2014.14.4.187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2014] [Revised: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 08/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) are the most common cause of genital ulceration in humans worldwide. Typically, HSV-1 and 2 infections via mucosal route result in a lifelong latent infection after peripheral replication in mucosal tissues, thereby providing potential transmission to neighbor hosts in response to reactivation. To break the transmission cycle, immunoprophylactics and therapeutic strategies must be focused on prevention of infection or reduction of infectivity at mucosal sites. Currently, our understanding of the immune responses against mucosal infection of HSV remains intricate and involves a balance between innate signaling pathways and the adaptive immune responses. Numerous studies have demonstrated that HSV mucosal infection induces type I interferons (IFN) via recognition of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and activates multiple immune cell populations, including NK cells, conventional dendritic cells (DCs), and plasmacytoid DCs. This innate immune response is required not only for the early control of viral replication at mucosal sites, but also for establishing adaptive immune responses against HSV antigens. Although the contribution of humoral immune response is controversial, CD4(+) Th1 T cells producing IFN-γ are believed to play an important role in eradicating virus from the hosts. In addition, the recent experimental successes of immunoprophylactic and therapeutic compounds that enhance resistance and/or reduce viral burden at mucosal sites have accumulated. This review focuses on attempts to modulate innate and adaptive immunity against HSV mucosal infection for the development of prophylactic and therapeutic strategies. Notably, cells involved in innate immune regulations appear to shape adaptive immune responses. Thus, we summarized the current evidence of various immune mediators in response to mucosal HSV infection, focusing on the importance of innate immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erdenebileg Uyangaa
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Bio-Safety Research Institute, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju 561-756, Korea
| | - Ajit Mahadev Patil
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Bio-Safety Research Institute, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju 561-756, Korea
| | - Seong Kug Eo
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Bio-Safety Research Institute, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju 561-756, Korea
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Affiliation(s)
- Elke Gülden
- Section of Endocrinology, Yale University School of Medicine , New Haven, CT , USA
| | - Li Wen
- Section of Endocrinology, Yale University School of Medicine , New Haven, CT , USA
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Angin M, Sharma S, King M, Murooka TT, Ghebremichael M, Mempel TR, Walker BD, Bhasin MK, Addo MM. HIV-1 infection impairs regulatory T-cell suppressive capacity on a per-cell basis. J Infect Dis 2014; 210:899-903. [PMID: 24664171 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiu188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The impact of CD4+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) on human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) pathogenesis remains incompletely understood. Although it has been shown that Tregs can be infected with HIV-1, the consequences of infection on a per-cell basis are still unknown. In vitro HIV-GFP infected and noninfected Tregs were isolated by flow-based cell-sorting to investigate Treg suppressive capacity and gene expression profiles. Our data show that HIV-1-infected Tregs were significantly less suppressive than noninfected Tregs and demonstrated down-regulation of genes critical to Treg function. This impaired function may have detrimental consequences for the control of generalized immune activation and accelerate HIV disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Manoj K Bhasin
- BIDMC Genomics and Proteomics Center, Dana Farber/Harvard Cancer Center
| | - Marylyn M Addo
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard Massachusetts General Hospital, Division of Infectious Diseases, Boston, Massachusetts Department of Medicine I, University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Hamburg/Lübeck/Borstel, Germany
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Zanin-Zhorov A, Cohen IR. Signaling via TLR2 and TLR4 Directly Down-Regulates T Cell Effector Functions: The Regulatory Face of Danger Signals. Front Immunol 2013; 4:211. [PMID: 23898332 PMCID: PMC3722573 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2013] [Accepted: 07/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are widely expressed and play an essential role in the activation of innate immune cells. However, certain TLRs are also expressed on T cells, and TLR ligands can directly modulate T cell functions. Here, we discuss findings indicating that T cells directly respond to Heat Shock Protein (HSP) 60, a self molecule, or to the HSP60-derived peptide, p277, via a TLR2-dependent mechanism. HSP60 has been considered to be a “danger signal” for the immune system because of its ability to induce pro-inflammatory phenotypes in innate immune cells – in this case via TLR4 activation; nevertheless, TLR2 engagement by HSP60 on T cells can lead to resolution of inflammation by up-regulating the suppression function of regulatory T cells and shifting the resulting cytokine secretion balance toward a Th2 phenotype. Moreover, T cell TLR4 engagement by LPS leads to up-regulation of suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 expression and consequently down-regulates T cell chemotaxis. Thus, TLR2 and TLR4 activation can contribute to both induction and termination of effector immune responses by controlling the activities of both innate and adaptive immune cells.
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Cho A, Roh YS, Uyangaa E, Park S, Kim JW, Lim KH, Kwon J, Eo SK, Lim CW, Kim B. Protective effects of red ginseng extract against vaginal herpes simplex virus infection. J Ginseng Res 2013; 37:210-8. [PMID: 23717174 PMCID: PMC3659631 DOI: 10.5142/jgr.2013.37.210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Revised: 11/07/2012] [Accepted: 11/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous studies have suggested that Korean red ginseng (KRG) extract has various immune modulatory activities both in vivo and in vitro. In this study, we used a mouse model to examine the effects of orally administered KRG extract on immunity against herpes simplex virus (HSV). Balb/c mice were administered with 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg oral doses of KRG extract for 10 d and then vaginally infected with HSV. We found that KRG extract rendered recipients more resistant against HSV vaginal infection and further systemic infection, including decreased clinical severity, increased survival rate, and accelerated viral clearance. Such results appeared to be mediated by increased vaginal IFN-γ secretion. Moreover, increased mRNA expression of IFN-γ, granzyme B, and Fas-ligand was identified in the iliac lymph node and vaginal tracts of KRG extract treated groups (200 and 400 mg/kg). These results suggest that the activities of local natural killer cells were promoted by KRG extract consumption and that KRG may be an attractive immune stimulator for helping hosts overcome HSV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ara Cho
- Biosafety Research Institute and College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju 561-756, Korea
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Roberts BJ, Dragon JA, Moussawi M, Huber SA. Sex-specific signaling through Toll-Like Receptors 2 and 4 contributes to survival outcome of Coxsackievirus B3 infection in C57Bl/6 mice. Biol Sex Differ 2012; 3:25. [PMID: 23241283 PMCID: PMC3586360 DOI: 10.1186/2042-6410-3-25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2012] [Accepted: 12/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) induces myocarditis, an inflammatory heart disease, which affects men more than women. Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling has been shown to determine the severity of CVB3-induced myocarditis. No direct role for signaling through TLR2 had been shown in myocarditis although published studies show that cardiac myosin is an endogenous TLR2 ligand and stimulates pro-inflammatory cytokine expression by dendritic cells in vitro. The goal of this study is to determine which TLRs show differential expression in CVB3 infected mice corresponding to male susceptibility and female resistance in this disease. Methods Male and female C57Bl/6 mice were infected with 102 PFU CVB3 and killed on day 3 or 6 post infection. Hearts were evaluated for virus titer, myocardial inflammation, and TLR mRNA expression by PCR array and microarray analysis. Splenic lymphocytes only were evaluated by flow cytometry for the number of TLR+/CD3+, TLR+/CD4+, TLR+F4/80+ and TLR+/CD11c+ subpopulations and the mean fluorescence intensity to assess upregulation of TLR expression on these cells. Mice were additionally treated with PAM3CSK4 (TLR2 agonist) or ultrapure LPS (TLR4 agonist) on the same day as CVB3 infection or 3 days post infection to confirm their role in myocarditis susceptibility. Results Despite equivalent viral titers, male C57Bl/6 mice develop more severe myocarditis than females by day 6 after infection. Microarray analysis shows a differential expression of TLR2 at day 3 with female mice having higher levels of TLR2 gene expression compared to males. Disease severity correlates to greater TLR4 protein expression on splenic lymphocytes in male mice 3 days after infection while resistance in females correlates to preferential TLR2 expression, especially in spleen lymphocytes. Treating male mice with PAM reduced mortality from 55% in control CVB3 infected animals to 10%. Treating female mice with LPS increased mortality from 0% in control infected animals to 60%. Conclusion CVB3 infection causes an up-regulation of TLR2 in female and of TLR4 in male mice and this differential expression between the sexes contributes to disease resistance of females and susceptibility of males. While previous reports demonstrated a pathogenic role for TLR4 this is the first report that TLR2 is preferentially up-regulated in CVB3 infected female mice or that signaling through this TLR directly causes myocarditis resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian J Roberts
- Department of Pathology, Center for Immunology and Infectious Disease, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA.
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Chentoufi AA, Kritzer E, Yu DM, Nesburn AB, Benmohamed L. Towards a rational design of an asymptomatic clinical herpes vaccine: the old, the new, and the unknown. Clin Dev Immunol 2012; 2012:187585. [PMID: 22548113 DOI: 10.1155/2012/187585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2011] [Accepted: 01/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The best hope of controlling the herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) pandemic is the development of an effective vaccine. However, in spite of several clinical trials, starting as early as 1920s, no vaccine has been proven sufficiently safe and efficient to warrant commercial development. In recent years, great strides in cellular and molecular immunology have stimulated creative efforts in controlling herpes infection and disease. However, before moving towards new vaccine strategy, it is necessary to answer two fundamental questions: (i) why past herpes vaccines have failed? (ii) Why the majority of HSV seropositive individuals (i.e., asymptomatic individuals) are naturally "protected" exhibiting few or no recurrent clinical disease, while other HSV seropositive individuals (i.e., symptomatic individuals) have frequent ocular, orofacial, and/or genital herpes clinical episodes? We recently discovered several discrete sets of HSV-1 symptomatic and asymptomatic epitopes recognized by CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells from seropositive symptomatic versus asymptomatic individuals. These asymptomatic epitopes will provide a solid foundation for the development of novel herpes epitope-based vaccine strategy. Here we provide a brief overview of past clinical vaccine trials, outline current progress towards developing a new generation "asymptomatic" clinical herpes vaccines, and discuss future mucosal "asymptomatic" prime-boost vaccines that could optimize local protective immunity.
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Abstract
Ocular surgeries and trauma predispose the eye to develop infectious endophthalmitis, which often leads to vision loss. The mechanisms of initiation of innate defense in this disease are not well understood but are presumed to involve retinal glial cells. We hypothesize that retinal Muller glia can recognize and respond to invading pathogens via TLRs, which are key regulators of the innate immune system. Using the mouse retinal sections, human retinal Muller cell line (MIO-M1), and primary mouse retinal Muller cells, we show that they express known human TLR1-10, adaptor molecules MyD88, TRIF, TRAM, and TRAF6, and co-receptors MD2 and CD14. Consistent with the gene expression, protein levels were also detected for the TLRs. Moreover, stimulation of the Muller glia with TLR 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 9 agonists resulted in an increased TLR expression as assayed by Western blot and flow cytometry. Furthermore, TLR agonists or live pathogen (S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, & C. albicans)-challenged Muller glia produced significantly higher levels of inflammatory mediators (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-8), concomitantly with the activation of NF-κB, p38 and Erk signaling. This data suggests that Muller glia directly contributes to retinal innate defense by recognizing microbial patterns under infectious conditions; such as those in endophthalmitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashok Kumar
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kresge Eye Institute, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America.
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