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Capone D, Cumming O, Flemister A, Ilevbare V, Irish SR, Keenum I, Knee J, Nala R, Brown J. Sanitation in urban areas may limit the spread of antimicrobial resistance via flies. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0298578. [PMID: 38507457 PMCID: PMC10954131 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0298578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Synanthropic filth flies are common where sanitation is poor and fecal wastes are accessible to them. These flies have been proposed as mechanical vectors for the localized transport of fecal microbes including antimicrobial resistant (AMR) organisms and associated antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs), increasing exposure risks. We evaluated whether an onsite sanitation intervention in Maputo, Mozambique reduced the concentration of enteric bacteria and the frequency of detection of ARGs carried by flies collected in household compounds of low-income neighborhoods. Additionally, we assessed the phenotypic resistance profile of Enterobacteriaceae isolates recovered from flies during the pre-intervention phase. After fly enumeration at study compounds, quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to quantify an enteric 16S rRNA gene (i.e., specific to a cluster of phylotypes corresponding to 5% of the human fecal microflora), 28 ARGs, and Kirby Bauer Disk Diffusion of Enterobacteriaceae isolates was utilized to assess resistance to eleven clinically relevant antibiotics. The intervention was associated with a 1.5 log10 reduction (95% confidence interval: -0.73, -2.3) in the concentration of the enteric 16S gene and a 31% reduction (adjusted prevalence ratio = 0.69, [0.52, 0.92]) in the mean number of ARGs per fly compared to a control group with poor sanitation. This protective effect was consistent across the six ARG classes that we detected. Enterobacteriaceae isolates-only from the pre-intervention phase-were resistant to a mean of 3.4 antibiotics out of the eleven assessed. Improving onsite sanitation infrastructure in low-income informal settlements may help reduce fly-mediated transmission of enteric bacteria and the ARGs carried by them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew Capone
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Oliver Cumming
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Abeoseh Flemister
- Roy Blunt NextGen Precision Health, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
- Department of Radiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States of America
| | - Victor Ilevbare
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Seth R. Irish
- Epidemiology and Public Health Department, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland
| | - Ishi Keenum
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Geospatial Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Jackie Knee
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rassul Nala
- Ministério da Saúde de Moçambique, Instituto Nacional de Saúde, Maputo, Mozambique
| | - Joe Brown
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
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Capone D, Adriano Z, Cumming O, Irish SR, Knee J, Nala R, Brown J. Urban Onsite Sanitation Upgrades and Synanthropic Flies in Maputo, Mozambique: Effects on Enteric Pathogen Infection Risks. Environ Sci Technol 2023; 57:549-560. [PMID: 36516327 PMCID: PMC9835884 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c06864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Synanthropic filth flies transport enteric pathogens from feces to food, which upon consumption poses an infection risk. We evaluated the effect of an onsite sanitation intervention─including fly control measures─in Maputo, Mozambique, on the risk of infection from consuming fly-contaminated food. After enumerating flies at intervention and control sites, we cultured fecal indicator bacteria, quantified gene copies for 22 enteric pathogens via reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), and developed quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) models to estimate annual risks of infection attributable to fly-contaminated foods. We found that the intervention reduced fly counts at latrine entrances by 69% (aRR = 0.31, [0.13, 0.75]) but not at food preparation areas (aRR = 0.92, [0.33, 2.6]). Half of (23/46) of individual flies were positive for culturable Escherichia coli, and we detected ≥1 pathogen gene from 45% (79/176) of flies, including enteropathogenic E. coli (37/176), adenovirus (25/176), Giardia spp. (13/176), and Trichuris trichiura (12/176). We detected ≥1 pathogen gene from half the flies caught in control (54%, 30/56) and intervention compounds (50%, 17/34) at baseline, which decreased 12 months post-intervention to 43% (23/53) at control compounds and 27% (9/33) for intervention compounds. These data indicate flies as a potentially important mechanical vector for enteric pathogen transmission in this setting. The intervention may have reduced the risk of fly-mediated enteric infection for some pathogens, but infrequent detection resulted in wide confidence intervals; we observed no apparent difference in infection risk between groups in a pooled estimate of all pathogens assessed (aRR = 0.84, [0.61, 1.2]). The infection risks posed by flies suggest that the design of sanitation systems and service delivery should include fly control measures to prevent enteric pathogen transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew Capone
- Department
of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Indiana University, 2719 E 10th St, Bloomington, Indiana47401, United States
| | - Zaida Adriano
- WE
Consult ltd, 177 Rua
Tomas Ribeiro, Maputo1102, Mozambique
| | - Oliver Cumming
- Department
of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene
and Tropical Medicine, LondonWC1E 7HT, United
Kingdom
| | - Seth R. Irish
- Epidemiology
and Public Health Department, Swiss Tropical
and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2, Allschwil4123, Switzerland
| | - Jackie Knee
- Department
of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene
and Tropical Medicine, LondonWC1E 7HT, United
Kingdom
| | - Rassul Nala
- Ministério
da Saúde, Instituto Nacional de Saúde
Maputo, Maputo1102, Mozambique
| | - Joe Brown
- Department
of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Public
Health, University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina27599, United States
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Schmidt WP, Haider I, Hussain M, Safdar M, Mustafa F, Massey T, Angelo G, Williams M, Gower R, Hasan Z, Waddington H, Anjum N, Biran A. The effect of improving solid waste collection on waste disposal behaviour and exposure to environmental risk factors in urban low-income communities in Pakistan. Trop Med Int Health 2022; 27:606-618. [PMID: 35654692 PMCID: PMC9544902 DOI: 10.1111/tmi.13787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To estimate the effect of improving waste collection services on waste disposal behaviour and exposure to environmental risk factors in urban, low-income communities in Pakistan. METHODS We enrolled six low-income communities in Islamabad (Pakistan), four of which received an intervention consisting of a door-to-door low-cost waste collection service with centralised waste processing and recycling sites. Intervention communities underwent community-level and household-level mobilisation. The effect of the intervention on waste disposal behaviour, exposure to waste and synanthropic fly counts was measured using two cross-sectional surveys in 180 households per community. RESULTS Intervention communities had less favourable socio-economic indicators and poorer access to waste disposal services at baseline than control communities. Use of any waste collection service increased from 5% to 49% in the intervention communities (difference 44%, 95% CI 41%, 48%), but the increase was largely confined to two communities where post-intervention coverage exceeded 80% and 90%, respectively. An increase in the use of waste collection services was also found in the two control communities (from 21% to 67%, difference 47%, 95% CI 41%, 53%). Fly counts decreased by about 60% in the intervention communities (rate ratio 0.4, 95% CI 0.3, 0.4) but not in the control communities (rate ratio 1.52, 95% CI 1.1, 2.2). The decrease in fly counts was largely confined to the two high-coverage intervention communities. CONCLUSION Introduction of a low-cost waste collection service has the potential for high uptake in low-income communities and for decreasing the exposure to waste and synanthropic flies at household level. Intervention success was constrained by low uptake in half of the intervention communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolf-Peter Schmidt
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Irfan Haider
- Department of Environmental Design, Health and Nutritional Sciences, Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Musarat Hussain
- Department of Environmental Design, Health and Nutritional Sciences, Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Mahpara Safdar
- Department of Environmental Design, Health and Nutritional Sciences, Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Farooq Mustafa
- Department of Environmental Design, Health and Nutritional Sciences, Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | | | | | | | | | - Zoone Hasan
- Pakistan Mission Society, PMS, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Hugh Waddington
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Nomana Anjum
- Department of Environmental Design, Health and Nutritional Sciences, Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Adam Biran
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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Dieng H, Satho T, Mohd Radzi NHSB, Abang F, A. Kassim NF, Zuharah WF, Hashim NA, Morales Vargas RE, Morales NP. Flower Mimics Roll Out Multicolored Carpets to Lure and Kill the House Fly. Insects 2021; 12:1097. [PMID: 34940185 PMCID: PMC8706000 DOI: 10.3390/insects12121097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Flowers and their spatial clustering are important parameters that mediate the foraging behavior and visitation rate of pollinating insects. Visual stimuli are crucial for triggering behavioral changes in the house fly, Musca domestica, which regularly visits plants for feeding and reproduction. The success of bait technology, which is the principal means of combatting flies, is adversely affected by reduced attractiveness and ineffective application techniques. Despite evidence that house flies have color vision capacity, respond to flowers, and exhibit color and pattern preference, the potential of artificial flowers as attractive factors has not been explored. The present study was performed to investigate whether artificial floral designs can lure and kill house flies. Starved wild house flies were presented with equal opportunities to acquire sugar meals, to which boric acid had been added as a toxin, from one flower arrangement (blue-dominated design, BDD; yellow-dominated design, YDD; or pink-dominated design, PDD), and a non-toxic white design (WDD). We also allowed house flies to forage within an enclosure containing two non-toxic floral designs (WDDs). The differences in mortality between the two environments with and without toxicant were examined. The survival rate of Musca domestica was extremely high when WDDs containing non-toxic sugar sources were the only feeding sites available. When given an option to forage in an environment containing a BDD and a WDD, house flies showed a high mortality rate (76%) compared to their counterparts maintained in the WDD environment (2%). When kept in an enclosure containing one YDD and a WDD, flies showed a mortality rate of 88%; however, no mortality occurred among flies confined to a compound with a WDD pair. When provided an even chance of foraging in an enclosure containing a mixed pair of floral arrangements (PDD and WDD) and another with two WDDs, flies showed a higher mortality rate (78%) in the first environment. However, the maximum survival rate (100%) was seen in the WDD environment. Exposure to YDD tended to result in a greater mortality rate than with the two other floral designs. Mortality gradually increased with time among flies exposed to tested artificial floral designs. The results presented here clearly indicated that artificial flower arrangements with a toxic sugar reward were strikingly attractive for house flies when their preferred color (white) was present. These observations offer novel possibilities for future development of flower mimic-based house fly control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamady Dieng
- Mosquito Research and Control Unit (MRCU), George Town KY1-1106, Cayman Islands
- Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Kota Samarahan 94300, Malaysia
| | - Tomomitsu Satho
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, Nanakuma Jonan-Ku, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan;
| | | | - Fatimah Abang
- Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Kota Samarahan 94300, Malaysia; (N.H.S.B.M.R.); (F.A.)
| | - Nur Faeza A. Kassim
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Gelugor 11800, Malaysia; (N.F.A.K.); (W.F.Z.)
| | - Wan Fatma Zuharah
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Gelugor 11800, Malaysia; (N.F.A.K.); (W.F.Z.)
| | - Nur Aida Hashim
- School of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Terengganu 21300, Malaysia;
| | | | - Noppawan P. Morales
- Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Krung Thep Maha Nakhon 10400, Thailand;
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Robinson A, Bickford-Smith J, Abdurahman Shafi O, Abraham Aga M, Shuka G, Debela D, Hordofa G, Alemayehu W, Sarah V, Last A, MacLeod D, Burton MJ, Logan JG. Towards an odour-baited trap to control Musca sorbens, the putative vector of trachoma. Sci Rep 2021; 11:14209. [PMID: 34244535 PMCID: PMC8271020 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-91609-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Musca sorbens is a synanthropic filth fly that aggressively attacks people to feed from mucous membranes of the eyes, nose or mouth, from open sores, or from sweat. It has long been suspected that this fly contributes to the transmission of eye infections, particularly trachoma, and recent work has added to the evidence base that M. sorbens is a trachoma vector in Ethiopia. There are few options to control M. sorbens, largely due to a lack of evidence. Space spraying with insecticides is effective, but an environmentally sound and long-term sustainable solution would be better, for example, mass trapping. We tested commercially available and homemade trap types in a pilot (laboratory) study and three field studies. A homemade design, built from a bucket and two empty water bottles, baited with a commercially available lure, The Buzz, was found to be most effective. This trap caught 3848 M. sorbens over 26 trap 'events' (3- or 4-day periods); mean/median per 24 h 43.6 (standard deviation 137.10)/2.25 (IQR 0.25-12.67). The Buzz lure is cheap and effective for 4 weeks, and trap components cheap and locally available. Further studies are needed to understand the impact of this trap on local fly populations and the local transmission of trachoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ailie Robinson
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK.
| | - Jack Bickford-Smith
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Oumer Abdurahman Shafi
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | | | - Gemeda Shuka
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Dereje Debela
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Population Service International, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Gebreyes Hordofa
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Netherlands Development Organization, The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Wondu Alemayehu
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Virginia Sarah
- Global Partnerships Executive, The Fred Hollows Foundation, 12-15 Crawford Mews, York Street, London, W1H1LX, UK
| | - Anna Last
- Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - David MacLeod
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Matthew J Burton
- Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - James G Logan
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
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