Three-dimensional ultrastructural study of the anther of Silene latifolia infected with Microbotryum lychnidis-dioicae

Convergence Analysis of Rust Fungi and Anther Smuts Reveals Their Common Molecular Adaptation to a Phytoparasitic Lifestyle

Convergent evolution between distantly related taxa often mirrors adaptation to similar environments. Rust fungi and anther smuts, which belong to different classes in Pucciniomycotina, have independently evolved a phytoparasitic lifestyle, representing an example of convergent evolution in the fungal kingdom. To investigate their adaptations and the genetic bases underlying their phytoparasitic lifestyles, we performed genome-wide convergence analysis of amino acid substitutions, evolutionary rates, and gene gains and losses. Convergent substitutions were detected in ATPeV0D and RP-S27Ae, two genes important for the generation of turgor pressure and ribosomal biosynthesis, respectively. A total of 51 positively selected genes were identified, including eight genes associated with translation and three genes related to the secretion pathway. In addition, rust fungi and anther smuts contained more proteins associated with oligopeptide transporters and vacuolar proteases than did other fungi. For rust fungi and anther smuts, these forms of convergence suggest four adaptive mechanisms for a phytoparasitic lifestyle: 1) reducing the metabolic demand for hyphal growth and penetration at the pre-penetration stage, 2) maintaining the efficiency of protein synthesis during colonization, 3) ensuring the normal secretion of rapidly evolving secreted proteins, and 4) improving the capacity for oligopeptide metabolism. Our results are the first to shed light on the genetic convergence mechanisms and molecular adaptation underlying phytoparasitic lifestyles in fungi.

How Do Smut Fungi Use Plant Signals to Spatiotemporally Orientate on and In Planta?

Smut fungi represent a large group of biotrophic plant pathogens that cause extensive yield loss and are also model organisms for studying plant-pathogen interactions. In recent years, they have become biotechnological tools. After initial penetration of the plant epidermis, smut fungi grow intra-and intercellularly without disrupting the plant-plasma membrane. Following the colonialization step, teliospores are formed and later released. While some smuts only invade the tissues around the initial penetration site, others colonize in multiple plant organs resulting in spore formation distal from the original infection site. The intimate contact zone between fungal hyphae and the host is termed the biotrophic interaction zone and enables exchange of signals and nutrient uptake. Obviously, all steps of on and in planta growth require fine sensing of host conditions as well as reprogramming of the host by the smut fungus. In this review, we highlight selected examples of smut fungal colonization styles, directional growth in planta, induction of spore formation, and the signals required, pointing to excellent reviews for details, to draw attention to some of the open questions in this important research field.

Three-dimensional ultrastructure and hyperspectral imaging of metabolite accumulation and dynamics in Haematococcus and Chlorella

Phycology has developed alongside light and electron microscopy techniques. Since the 1950s, progress in the field has accelerated dramatically with the advent of electron microscopy. Transmission electron microscopes can only acquire imaging data on a 2D plane. Currently, many of the life sciences are seeking to obtain 3D images with electron microscopy for the accurate interpretation of subcellular dynamics. Three-dimensional reconstruction using serial sections is a method that can cover relatively large cells or tissues without requiring special equipment. Another challenge is monitoring secondary metabolites (such as lipids or carotenoids) in intact cells. This became feasible with hyperspectral cameras, which enable the acquisition of wide-range spectral information in living cells. Here, we review bioimaging studies on the intracellular dynamics of substances such as lipids, carotenoids and phosphorus using conventional to state-of-the-art microscopy techniques in the field of algal biorefining.

An asexual flower of Silene latifolia and Microbotryum lychnidis-dioicae promotes sex-organ development

Silene latifolia is a dioecious flowering plant with sex chromosomes in the family Caryophyllaceae. Development of a gynoecium and stamens are suppressed in the male and female flowers of S. latifolia, respectively. Microbotryum lychnidis-dioicae promotes stamen development when it infects the female flower. If suppression of the stamen and gynoecium development is regulated by the same mechanism, suppression of gynoecium and stamen development is released simultaneously with the infection by M. lychnidis-dioicae. To assess this hypothesis, an asexual mutant without a gynoecium or stamen was infected with M. lychnidis-dioicae. A filament of the stamen in the infected asexual mutant was elongated at stages 11 and 12 of flower bud development as well as in the male, but the gynoecium did not form. Instead of the gynoecium, a filamentous structure was suppressed as in the male flower. Developmental suppression of the stamen was released by M. lychnidis-dioicae, but that of gynoecium development was not released. M. lychnidis-dioicae would have a function similar to stamen-promoting factor (SPF), since the elongation of the stamen that is not observed in the healthy asexual mutant was observed after stage 8 of flower bud development. An infection experiment also revealed that a deletion on the Y chromosome of the asexual mutant eliminated genes for maturation of tapetal cells because the tapetal cells did not mature in the asexual mutant infected with M. lychnidis-dioicae.