Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome after intrathecal methotrexate infusion: a case report and literature update

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome in Isfahan, Iran

Background:

Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) is a rare clinical-radiological syndrome characterized by such symptoms as headaches, altered consciousness, blurred vision, seizure, and focal neurological deficits. We herein present well-documented PRES cases and discuss the risk factors and characteristic imaging patterns of this syndrome.

Materials and Methods:

We prospectively examined 31 patients with PRES in Alzahra Hospital, Isfahan, Iran, and compared the underlying diseases of PRES in terms of their clinical features and cranial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings.

Results:

The most common underlying disease was hypertension (90.3%), followed by systemic lupus erythematosus (32.3%), preeclampsia (25.8%), chronic renal failure (22.6%), and rheumatoid arthritis (22.6%). Interestingly, we also reported heroin abuse as a possible risk factor for PRES (9.7%). The most frequent clinical signs were headaches (54.8%), seizure (54.8%), and blurred vision (35.5%). The most frequent lesions on cranial MRI were in the parieto-occipital area (87.1%), followed by the cerebellum (19.4%) and the frontal lobe (12.9%). Other abnormalities on MRI were less common. In addition, 16.1% of the study population had vasospasm on magnetic resonance arteriography (MRA). Clinical recovery was followed by radiological resolution in all the patients.

Conclusions:

The clinical presentation is nonspecific, most patients present with a combination of symptoms, particularly headaches and seizure. MRI is crucial for the diagnosis of PRES, and MRA is useful in that it can identify associated vasospasm. Timely diagnosis and treatment are required to avoid a devastating outcome.

Neuroimaging of CNS infection in haematological malignancy: important signs and common diagnostic pitfalls

Patients with haematological malignancy are at increased risk of developing central nervous system (CNS) infections, which are associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Neuroimaging plays a pivotal role in the diagnostic pathway of these patients; however, layers of complexity are added to image interpretation by the heterogeneity in imaging manifestations of haematological malignancies in the CNS, overlapping imaging features of CNS infection, treatment-related parenchymal changes and the presence of intracranial comorbidity. In this article, we review important intracranial findings of CNS infection cases accrued in 1,855 studies over more than a decade at a specialist tertiary centre. We offer schema to identify common and important neuroimaging features, discuss key differential diagnoses and frequent diagnostic pitfalls.

Management and Clinical Outcome of Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome in Pediatric Oncologic/Hematologic Diseases: A PRES Subgroup Analysis With a Large Sample Size

This study investigated the management and clinical outcomes along with associated factors of posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) in childhood hematologic/oncologic diseases. We present data from children with hematologic/oncologic diseases who developed PRES after treatment of the primary disease with chemotherapy and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) at 3 medical centers in Changsha, China from 2015 to 2020, and review all previously reported cases with the aim of determining whether this neurologic manifestation affects the disease prognosis. In the clinical cohort of 58 PRES patients, hypertension [pooled odds ratio (OR) = 4.941, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.390, 17.570; P = 0.001] and blood transfusion (OR = 14.259, 95% CI: 3.273, 62.131; P = 0.001) were significantly associated with PRES. Elevated platelet (OR = 0.988, 95% CI: 0.982, 0.995; P < 0.001), hemoglobin (OR = 0.924, 95% CI: 0.890, 0.995; P < 0.001), and blood sodium (OR = 0.905, 95% CI: 0.860, 0.953; P < 0.001), potassium (OR = 0.599, 95% CI: 0.360, 0.995; P = 0.048), and magnesium (OR = 0.093, 95% CI: 0.016, 0.539; P = 0.008) were protective factors against PRES. Data for 440 pediatric PRES patients with hematologic/oncologic diseases in 21 articles retrieved from PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase databases and the 20 PRES patients from our study were analyzed. The median age at presentation was 7.9 years. The most common primary diagnosis was leukemia (62.3%), followed by solid tumor (7.7%) and lymphoma (7.5%). Most patients (65.0%) received chemotherapy, including non-induction (55.2%) and induction (44.8%) regimens; and 86.5% used corticosteroids before the onset of PRES. Although 21.0% of patients died during follow-up, in most cases (93.2%) this was not attributable to PRES but to severe infection (27.3%), underlying disease (26.1%), graft-vs.-host disease (14.8%), multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (8.0%), and respiratory failure (3.4%). PRES was more common with HSCT compared to chemotherapy and had a nearly 2 times higher mortality rate in patients with oncologic/hematologic diseases than in those with other types of disease. Monitoring neurologic signs and symptoms in the former group is therefore critical for ensuring good clinical outcomes following treatment of the primary malignancy.

Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome in Children:: A Prospective Follow-up Study

AIM

To evaluate clinical and radiologic presentation, and neurologic outcome of pediatric posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The study included 24 children (14 males and 10 females) diagnosed with PRES who were prospectively followed for 2 years. They were evaluated using Wechsler Intelligence Scale, electroencephalograph (EEG), and brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

RESULTS

The mean age of the studied patients at the time of diagnosis of PRES was 6 years (±2.2). Chemotherapy for cancer represented 66.7% of the causes of PRES in the studied children, followed by renal disorders and immunosuppressive agents for hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Twenty-seven attacks of PRES were reported as 3 children developed a second attack of PRES. Normal intelligence quotient was found in 95.8% of studied children after PRES. Residual abnormalities in follow-up MRI were demonstrated in 3 children. Epilepsy and residual MRI lesions were reported in 2 of the 3 children with recurrent PRES. Residual lesions in follow-up MRI and epilepsy were more significantly reported after recurrent PRES (P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Neoplastic, renal disorders and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation represent the main disorders associated with PRES in children. Chemotherapeutic drugs, immunosuppressants, and hypertension are the main risk factors for pediatric PRES. The outcome of pediatric PRES is good, but long-term neurologic sequelae can occur, mainly epilepsy and residual MRI abnormalities. Recurrence of PRES is infrequently reported in children receiving chemotherapeutic or immunosuppressive drugs. Recurrent PRES is a risk factor for long-term neurologic sequelae.

Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: Clinical characteristics, risk factors, course, and outcome of disease

BACKGROUND

Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) is a distinct entity with incompletely known predisposing factors. The aim of this study is to describe the incidence, risk factors, clinical course, and outcome of PRES in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL).

PROCEDURE

Patients aged 1.0 to 17.9 years diagnosed with ALL from July 2008 to December 2015 and treated according to the Nordic Society of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology (NOPHO) ALL2008 protocol were included. Patients with PRES were identified in the prospective NOPHO leukemia toxicity registry, and clinical data were collected from the medical records.

RESULTS

The study group included 1378 patients, of whom 52 met the criteria for PRES. The cumulative incidence of PRES at one month was 1.7% (95% CI, 1.1-2.5) and at one year 3.7% (95% CI, 2.9-4.9). Older age (hazard ratios [HR] for each one-year increase in age 1.1; 95% CI, 1.0-1.2, P = 0.001) and T-cell immunophenotype (HR, 2.9; 95% CI, 1.6-5.3, P = 0.0005) were associated with PRES. Central nervous system (CNS) involvement (odds ratios [OR] = 2.8; 95% CI, 1.2-6.5, P = 0.015) was associated with early PRES and high-risk block treatment (HR = 2.63; 95% CI, 1.1-6.4, P = 0.033) with late PRES. At follow-up of the PRES patients, seven patients had epilepsy and seven had neurocognitive difficulties.

CONCLUSION

PRES is a neurotoxicity in the treatment of childhood ALL with both acute and long-term morbidity. Older age, T-cell leukemia, CNS involvement and high-risk block treatment are risk factors for PRES.

Clinical Characteristics and Outcome of Children With Relapsed Medulloblastoma: A Retrospective Study at a Single Center in China

Relapsed medulloblastoma (MB) has a dire prognosis, and chemotherapy remains the main therapeutic option. We retrospectively analyzed the clinical characteristics and survival rates of 60 Chinese children with relapsed MB. The patients received 11 cycles of chemotherapy in sequence, followed by 12 cycles of oral temozolomide and etoposide. Thirty patients were simultaneously administered intrathecal methotrexate (IT-MTX). The Kaplan-Meier method was used to determine survival rates; the patients' median survival time after relapse was 2.8 years, 5-year progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) rates were 26.7%±5.7% and 31.6%±6.9%, respectively. There was no significant difference between these rates according to histology or molecular subgroup. Tumor cells were detected in the cerebrospinal fluid of over 40% of patients; such patients had significantly shorter OS and PFS rates. Patients who received IT-MTX showed significantly longer survival than those who did not (3.73 vs. 2.06 y, respectively, P=0.000); the corresponding 5-year PFS and OS rates were 43.3%±9.0% versus 10.0%±5.5% and 49.5%±11.1% versus 14.6%±6.9%, respectively (P=0.000). In addition, tumor cell-positive cerebrospinal fluid and IT-MTX use significantly influenced PFS and OS in relapsed patients. Taken together, our data show that IT-MTX improves the survival of patients with relapsed MB.

Risk factors for poor outcome in posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

The roles of clinical etiology and symptoms, imaging findings and biochemical parameters in predicting the prognosis of posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) have not been well-characterized. We perform a meta-analysis of all published studies to assess the value of various risk factors in predicting the prognosis of PRES.

Methods

Searches of the PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science databases were performed to identify the eligible studies. The odds ratios (ORs) with their corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI) for related risk factors were used to calculate the pooled estimates of the outcomes.

Results

Six studies with 448 cases were included in the meta-analysis. Hemorrhage was associated with high risk for poor outcome in patients with PRES. Toxemia of pregnancy (pre-eclampsia/eclampsia) was associated with improved outcome in PRES patients. Cytotoxic edema was noted to be related to poor outcome, but did not show statistical significance. The pooled OR for hemorrhage, pre-eclampsia/eclampsia, cytotoxic edema was 4.93 (95% CI: 3.94-6.17; P<0.00001), 0.24 (95% CI: 0.15-0.40; P<0.00001) and 2.59 (95% CI: 0.84-7.99; P=0.10), respectively.

Conclusions

PRES patients with hemorrhage or cytotoxic edema are likely to have poor outcomes. Pre-eclampsia/eclampsia is associated with reduced risk of poor outcome in patients with PRES.

Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome while receiving irinotecan with fluorouracil and folinic acid for metastatic gastric cancer

Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) is a clinical-radiographic syndrome with seizures, headache, altered mental status and visual disturbances. It is typically associated with posterior cerebral white matter oedema on neuroimaging. There is an increasing number of cases of PRES reported with different chemotherapeutic protocols. However, PRES is rarely reported in association with irinotecan, fluorouracil and folinic acid (FOLFIRI). We report a 28-year-old female patient with a history of Stage IV gastric cancer who presented with abdominal pain and recurrent vomiting that was thought to be related to a partial intestinal obstruction secondary to peritoneal metastasis. Eventually, she was treated with FOLFIRI. A few hours after initiation of the fluorouracil infusion in the second cycle, she developed a tonic-clonic seizure. MRI of the brain showed multiple bilateral T₂ and flair hyperintense cortical and subcortical lesions suggestive of PRES. Other causes of PRES were excluded, as well as brain metastasis. Unfortunately, the patient developed septic shock and died a few days after her presentation.

[Acute methotrexate-related neurotoxicity and pseudo-stroke syndrome]

Treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia requires high-dose systemic and/or intrathecal methotrexate to prevent and/or treat central nervous system disorders. Acute neurotoxicity of methotrexate, of unknown etiopathogenesis, is characterized by the polymorphism of clinical manifestations, responsible for a potentially harmful diagnostic delay in these immunosuppressed patients. We describe five episodes of transient acute leukoencephalopathy mimicking a stroke, reported in the literature as "pseudo-stroke syndrome". Neurologic symptoms occurred 3-10 days after IV or IT methotrexate and manifested as aphasia and alternating sensorimotor deficit. The fluctuating symptomatology regressed completely within a few days. Brain MRI, which is essential for diagnosis, demonstrated early white matter diffusion restriction in the affected cerebral area. These anomalies disappeared in one week, while hyperintense T2 FLAIR signals developed in the corresponding brain areas. The long-term progression of these pseudo-stroke patients was favorable, without any therapeutic modification. Nevertheless, the involvement of transient acute leukoencephalopathy episodes in the progressive onset of neuro-cognitive disorders is discussed.

Methotrexate-induced leukoencephalopathy presenting as stroke in the emergency department

Methotrexate-induced leukoencephalopathy is to be considered as a potential etiology in any patient presenting with stroke-like symptoms after receiving methotrexate. One of our cases suggests that the method of administration of the methotrexate can be IV or intrathecal and still results in leukoencephalopathy.

Managing CNS disease in adults with acute lymphoblastic leukemia

The central nervous system (CNS) is an important site of involvement by acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) in adults. The prevalence is sufficiently high that prophylactic treatment is routinely given to this sanctuary site in order to eradicate occult disease that might otherwise lead to a relapse. A lumbar puncture should be routinely performed in all newly diagnosed patients with ALL. The risks of CNS leukemia vary by phenotype and genotype. Preventive treatment of the CNS during post-remission therapy has become an integral part of all current ALL treatment protocols. Most treatment regimens combine multiple doses of intrathecal chemotherapy with high-dose systemic methotrexate and/or cytarabine. Cranial irradiation is less commonly used for prophylaxis but is still the most effective treatment for overt CNS leukemia. Recurrences within the CNS usually coincide with or predict soon afterwards for systemic relapse in the marrow and blood.