Therapeutic effect of Low intensity Extracorporeal Shock Wave Therapy (Li-ESWT) on diabetic bladder dysfunction in a rat model

Effects of low-intensity extracorporeal shock wave therapy on lipopolysaccharide cystitis in a rat model of interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome

PURPOSE

To investigate the effect of low-intensity extracorporeal shock wave therapy (LiESWT) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced cystitis in an animal model of interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS).

METHODS

Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into three groups: control, cystitis (LPS group, intravesical injection of LPS (1 mg) twice), and cystitis with LiESWT (LiESWT group). On the third and fourth days, LiESWT was administered (0.12 mJ/mm2, 300 shots each time) on the lower abdomen toward the bladder. On the seventh day, the rats underwent pain assessment and a metabolic cage study. Subsequently, a continuous cystometrogram (CMG) was performed under urethane anaesthesia. Immunohistochemical studies were also performed, including S-100 staining, an immunohistochemical marker of Schwann cells in the bladder.

RESULTS

In the LPS group, the pain threshold in the lower abdomen was significantly lower than that in the control group. In the metabolic cage study, the mean voided volume in the LPS group significantly increased. The CMG also revealed a significant decrease in bladder contraction amplitude, compatible with detrusor underactivity in the LPS group. Immunohistochemical studies showed inflammatory changes in the submucosa, increased fibrosis, and decreased S-100 stain-positive areas in the muscle layer of the LPS group. In the LiESWT group, tactile allodynia and bladder function were ameliorated, and S-100 stain-positive areas were increased.

CONCLUSION

By restoring nerve damage, LiESWT improved lower abdominal pain sensitivity and bladder function in an LPS-induced cystitis rat model. This study suggests that LiESWT may be a new therapeutic modality for IC/BPS.

The potential involvement of MRP5 pump in urethral dysfunction in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

PURPOSE

To examine the effects of i.v. administration of MK-571, a MRP4/5 pump inhibitor, on urethral function in the urethane-anesthetized rat, and the changes of urethral multidrug resistance protein 5 (MRP5) pump in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes mellitus (DM) rats.

METHODS

Isovolumetric cystometry and urethral perfusion pressure (UPP) measurements were carried out in normal control (NC) group and 8week DM groups under urethane anesthesia. When stable rhythmic bladder contractions were showed, UPP parameters were recorded after successive administration of various dose of MK-571. Additionally, urethral cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) protein level was evaluated by ELISA, and changes of MRP5 pump and neurogenic nitric oxide synthase (nNOs) in the urethra were examined with immunohistochemical staining and Western blot analysis.

RESULTS

In NC group, UPP_nadir was significantly decreased but UPP change increased after administration of MK-571, while no significant differences in UPP parameters were observed in 8-week DM group. Furthermore, urethral MRP5 protein level was up-regulated, whereas urethral cGMP and nNOS protein levels were down-regulated in 8-week DM group.

CONCLUSIONS

MK-571 could not restore NO-mediated urethral relaxation dysfunction in DM rats, which may be attributed to the up-regulation of urethral MRP5 pump, and thus decrease of intracellular cGMP concentration in the urethra. These novel results would be useful for a better understanding of DM-related lower urinary tract dysfunction LUT (LUTD). Also, they could be helpful to study the importance of MRP pumps in the control of urethral relaxation mechanisms under physiological and pathological states.

Effects of electroacupuncture on bladder dysfunction and the expression of PACAP38 in a diabetic rat model

Objective: To explore the effects and the possible mechanism of electroacupuncture (EA) on diabetic bladder dysfunction (DBD) in streptozotocin-high fat diet (STZ-HFD) induced type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) rats. Methods: The experiment was divided into Control, diabetic bladder dysfunction, electroacupuncture, and Sham electroacupuncture group. After 8 weeks of electroacupuncture intervention, the body mass, 24 h urine volume, intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test (IPGTT), and urodynamics were detected. After the wet weight of the bladder was detected, the hematoxylin-eosin (HE), Masson's trichrome, and TUNEL were used to analyze histological changes. The PACAP38 expressions in the bladder were detected by Real-time PCR and Western blot. Results: Compared to the Control group, the bladder wet weight, 24 h urine volume, blood glucose, maximum bladder capacity, bladder compliance, bladder wall thickness, the smooth muscle/collagen ratio, and apoptosis rate of the diabetic bladder dysfunction group were significantly increased. Moreover, the body mass and leak point pressure were significantly reduced. Compared with the Sham electroacupuncture group, the bladder wet weight, maximum bladder capacity, bladder compliance, bladder wall thickness, and apoptosis rate of the electroacupuncture group were significantly reduced. In contrast, the leak point pressure was increased. The PACAP38 mRNA and PACAP38 protein expression of the diabetic bladder dysfunction group were significantly lower than the Control group, while electroacupuncture treatment could upregulate PACAP38 mRNA levels and PACAP38 protein expression of diabetic bladder dysfunction model rats. Conclusion: electroacupuncture could ameliorate bladder dysfunction in the diabetic bladder dysfunction model rats by reversing bladder remodeling, which might be mainly mediated by regulating the PACAP38 level.

Inflammation triggered by the NLRP3 inflammasome is a critical driver of diabetic bladder dysfunction

Diabetes is a rapidly expanding epidemic projected to affect as many as 1 in 3 Americans by 2050. This disease is characterized by devastating complications brought about high glucose and metabolic derangement. The most common of these complications is diabetic bladder dysfunction (DBD) and estimates suggest that 50-80% of patients experience this disorder. Unfortunately, the Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications Study suggests that strict glucose control does not decrease ones risk for incontinence, although it does decrease the risk of other complications such as retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy. Thus, there is a significant unmet need to better understand DBD in order to develop targeted therapies to alleviate patient suffering. Recently, the research community has come to understand that diabetes produces a systemic state of low-level inflammation known as meta-inflammation and attention has focused on a role for the sterile inflammation-inducing structure known as the NLRP3 inflammasome. In this review, we will examine the evidence that NLRP3 plays a central role in inducing DBD and driving its progression towards an underactive phenotype.

Established and emerging treatments for diabetes-associated lower urinary tract dysfunction

Dysfunction of the lower urinary tract (LUT) including urinary bladder and urethra (and prostate in men) is one of the most frequent complications of diabetes and can manifest as overactive bladder, underactive bladder, urinary incontinence, and as aggravated symptoms of benign prostate hyperplasia. We have performed a selective literature search to review existing evidence on efficacy of classic medications for the treatment of LUT dysfunction in diabetic patients and animals, i.e., α1-adrenoceptor and muscarinic receptor antagonists, β3-adrenoceptor agonists, and phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors. Generally, these agents appear to have comparable efficacy in patients and/or animals with and without diabetes. We also review effects of antidiabetic medications on LUT function. Such studies have largely been performed in animal models. In the streptozotocin-induced models of type 1 diabetes, insulin can prevent and reverse alterations of morphology, function, and gene expression patterns in bladder and prostate. Typical medications for the treatment of type 2 diabetes have been studied less often, and the reported findings are not yet sufficient to derive robust conclusions. Thereafter, we review animal studies with emerging medications perhaps targeting diabetes-associated LUT dysfunction. Data with myoinositol, daidzein, and with compounds that target oxidative stress, inflammation, Rac1, nerve growth factor, angiotensin II receptor, serotonin receptor, adenosine receptor, and soluble guanylyl cyclase are not conclusive yet, but some hold promise as potential treatments. Finally, we review nonpharmacological interventions in diabetic bladder dysfunction. These approaches are relatively new and give promising results in preclinical studies. In conclusion, the insulin data in rodent models of type 1 diabetes suggest that diabetes-associated LUT function can be mostly or partially reversed. However, we propose that considerable additional experimental and clinical studies are needed to target diabetes itself or pathophysiological changes induced by chronic hyperglycemia for the treatment of diabetic uropathy.

Low-Energy Shock Wave Plus Intravesical Instillation of Botulinum Toxin A for Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome: Pathophysiology and Preliminary Result of a Novel Minimally Invasive Treatment

Low-energy shock wave (LESW) therapy is known to facilitate tissue regeneration with analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects. LESW treatment has been demonstrated to be effective in treating chronic prostatitis and pelvic pain syndrome as well as overactive bladder, and it has a potential effect on interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS) in humans. LESW reduces pain behavior, downregulates nerve growth factor expression, and suppresses bladder overactivity by decreasing the expression of inflammatory proteins. Previous rat IC models have shown that LESW can increase urothelial permeability, facilitate intravesical delivery of botulinum toxin A (BoNT-A), and block acetic acid-induced hyperactive bladder, suggesting that LESW might be a potential therapeutic module for relieving bladder inflammatory conditions, such as bladder oversensitivity, IC/BPS, and overactive bladder. A recent clinical trial showed that LESW monotherapy was associated with a significant reduction in pain scores and IC symptoms. BoNT-A detrusor injection or liposome-encapsulated BoNT-A instillation could also inhibit inflammation and improve IC symptoms. However, BoNT-A injection requires anesthesia and certain complications might occur. Our preliminary study using LESW plus intravesical BoNT-A instillation every week demonstrated an improvement in global response assessment without any adverse events. Moreover, an immunohistochemistry study revealed the presence of cleaved SNAP25 protein in the suburothelium of IC bladder tissue, indicating that BoNT-A could penetrate across the urothelial barrier after application of LESW. These results provide evidence for the efficacy and safety of this novel IC/BPS treatment by LESW plus BoNT-A instillation, without anesthesia, and no bladder injection. This article reviews the current evidence on LESW and LESW plus intravesical therapeutic agents on bladder disorders and the pathophysiology and pharmacological mechanism of this novel, minimally invasive treatment model for IC/BPS.

Low-Intensity Extracorporeal Shock Wave Therapy Promotes Bladder Regeneration and Improves Overactive Bladder Induced by Ovarian Hormone Deficiency from Rat Animal Model to Human Clinical Trial

Postmenopausal women with ovary hormone deficiency (OHD) are subject to overactive bladder (OAB) symptoms. The present study attempted to elucidate whether low-intensity extracorporeal shock wave therapy (LiESWT) alters bladder angiogenesis, decreases inflammatory response, and ameliorates bladder hyperactivity to influence bladder function in OHD-induced OAB in human clinical trial and rat model. The ovariectomized (OVX) for 12 months Sprague–Dawley rat model mimicking the physiological condition of menopause was utilized to induce OAB and assess the potential therapeutic mechanism of LiESWT (0.12 mJ/mm², 300 pulses, and 3 pulses/second). The randomized, single-blinded clinical trial was enrolled 58 participants to investigate the therapeutic efficacy of LiESWT (0.25 mJ/mm², 3000 pulses, 3 pulses/second) on postmenopausal women with OAB. The results revealed that 8 weeks’ LiESWT inhibited interstitial fibrosis, promoted cell proliferation, enhanced angiogenesis protein expression, and elevated the protein phosphorylation of ErK1/2, P38, and Akt, leading to decreased urinary frequency, nocturia, urgency, urgency incontinence, and post-voided residual urine volume, but increased voided urine volume and the maximal flow rate of postmenopausal participants. In conclusion, LiESWT attenuated inflammatory responses, increased angiogenesis, and promoted proliferation and differentiation, thereby improved OAB symptoms, thereafter promoting social activity and the quality of life of postmenopausal participants.

Effect of Electroacupuncture on Bladder Dysfunction via Regulation of MLC and MLCK Phosphorylation in a Rat Model of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Previous studies observed have reported that electroacupuncture (EA) is effective in relieving diabetic bladder dysfunction (DBD); however, little is known about the mechanism. Therefore, we explored the effects and mechanisms of EA on DBD in streptozotocin–high-fat diet- (STZ–HFD-) induced diabetic rats. The Sprague-Dawley male rats were divided randomly into four groups: normal group, diabetes mellitus group (DM group), DM with EA treatment group (EA group), and DM with sham EA treatment group (sham EA group). After 8 weeks of EA treatment, the body weight, serum glucose, bladder weight, and cystometrogram were evaluated. The bladder wall thickness was examined by abdominal ultrasound imaging. After the transabdominal ultrasound measurements, hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining was used to observe the bladder mucosa layer. The bladder detrusor smooth muscle cells (SMCs) and fibroblasts were observed under transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The phospho-myosin light chain (p-MLC), phospho-myosin light chain kinase (p-MLCK), and phospho-myosin phosphatase target subunit 1 (p-MYPT1) levels in the bladder were examined using Western blot. The bladder weight, serum glucose, bladder wall thickness, volume threshold for micturition, and postvoid residual (PVR) volume in the diabetic rats were significantly higher than those in the control animals. EA treatment significantly reduced the bladder weight, bladder wall thickness, volume threshold for micturition, and PVR volume in diabetic rats. EA caused a significant increase in the MLC dephosphorylation and MLCK phosphorylation levels in the group compared to the sham EA and model groups. EA reduced the infiltration of inflammatory cells in the bladder mucosa layer of diabetic rats. In addition, EA repaired the damaged bladder detrusor muscle of diabetic rats by reducing mitochondrial damage of the SMCs and fibroblasts. Therefore, EA could reduce the bladder hypertrophy to ameliorate DBD by reversing the impairment in the mucosa layer and detrusor SMCs, which might be mainly mediated by the regulation of p-MLC and p-MLCK levels.