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Muleta A, Tesfaye K, Assefa F, Greenlon A, Riely BK, Carrasquilla-Garcia N, Gai Y, Haileslassie T, Cook DR. Genomic diversity and distribution of Mesorhizobium nodulating chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) from low pH soils of Ethiopia. Syst Appl Microbiol 2021; 45:126279. [PMID: 34839036 DOI: 10.1016/j.syapm.2021.126279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2021] [Revised: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Chickpea is the third most important grain legume worldwide. This is due in part to its high protein content that results from its ability to acquire bioavailable nitrogen when colonized by diverse, nitrogen fixing Mesorhizobium species. However, the diversity and distribution of mesorhizobia communities may depend on their adaptation to soil conditions. Therefore, this study was initiated in order to isolate and investigate the diversity and taxonomic identities of chickpea-nodulating Mesorhizobium species from low pH soils of Ethiopia. A total of 81 rhizobia strains were isolated from chickpea nodules harvested from low pH soils throughout Ethiopia, and their genomes were sequenced and assembled. Considering a representative set of the best-sequenced 81 genomes, the average sequence depth was 30X, with estimated average genome sizes of approximately 7 Mbp. Annotation of the assembled genome predicted an average of 7,453 protein-coding genes. Concatenation of 400 universal PhyloPhlAn conserved genes present in the genomes of all 81 strains allowed detailed phylogenetic analysis, from which eight well-supported species were identified, including M.opportunistum, M.australicum, Mesorhizobium sp. LSJC280BOO, M.wenxiniae, M.amorphae, M.loti and M.plurifarium, as well as a novel species. Phylogenetic reconstructions based on the symbiosis-related (nodC and nifH) genes were different from the core genes and consistent with horizontal transfer of the symbiotic island. The two major genomic groups, M.plurifarium and M.loti, were widely distributed in almost all the sites. The geographic pattern of genomic diversity indicated there was no relationship between geographic and genetic distance (r = 0.01, p > 0.01). In conclusion, low pH soils in Ethiopia harbored a diverse group of Mesorhizobium species, several of which were not previously known to nodulate chickpea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsede Muleta
- Department of Microbial, Cellular and Molecular Biology, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
| | - Kassahun Tesfaye
- Institutes of Biotechnology, Addis Ababa University, P.O Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Ethiopian Biotechnology Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Fassil Assefa
- Department of Microbial, Cellular and Molecular Biology, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Alex Greenlon
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Brendan K Riely
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Noelia Carrasquilla-Garcia
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Yunpeng Gai
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA, United States
| | | | - Douglas R Cook
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA, United States
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Hungate BA, Marks JC, Power ME, Schwartz E, van Groenigen KJ, Blazewicz SJ, Chuckran P, Dijkstra P, Finley BK, Firestone MK, Foley M, Greenlon A, Hayer M, Hofmockel KS, Koch BJ, Mack MC, Mau RL, Miller SN, Morrissey EM, Propster JR, Purcell AM, Sieradzki E, Starr EP, Stone BWG, Terrer C, Pett-Ridge J. The Functional Significance of Bacterial Predators. mBio 2021; 12:e00466-21. [PMID: 33906922 PMCID: PMC8092244 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00466-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Predation structures food webs, influences energy flow, and alters rates and pathways of nutrient cycling through ecosystems, effects that are well documented for macroscopic predators. In the microbial world, predatory bacteria are common, yet little is known about their rates of growth and roles in energy flows through microbial food webs, in part because these are difficult to quantify. Here, we show that growth and carbon uptake were higher in predatory bacteria compared to nonpredatory bacteria, a finding across 15 sites, synthesizing 82 experiments and over 100,000 taxon-specific measurements of element flow into newly synthesized bacterial DNA. Obligate predatory bacteria grew 36% faster and assimilated carbon at rates 211% higher than nonpredatory bacteria. These differences were less pronounced for facultative predators (6% higher growth rates, 17% higher carbon assimilation rates), though high growth and carbon assimilation rates were observed for some facultative predators, such as members of the genera Lysobacter and Cytophaga, both capable of gliding motility and wolf-pack hunting behavior. Added carbon substrates disproportionately stimulated growth of obligate predators, with responses 63% higher than those of nonpredators for the Bdellovibrionales and 81% higher for the Vampirovibrionales, whereas responses of facultative predators to substrate addition were no different from those of nonpredators. This finding supports the ecological theory that higher productivity increases predator control of lower trophic levels. These findings also indicate that the functional significance of bacterial predators increases with energy flow and that predatory bacteria influence element flow through microbial food webs.IMPORTANCE The word "predator" may conjure images of leopards killing and eating impala on the African savannah or of great white sharks attacking elephant seals off the coast of California. But microorganisms are also predators, including bacteria that kill and eat other bacteria. While predatory bacteria have been found in many environments, it has been challenging to document their importance in nature. This study quantified the growth of predatory and nonpredatory bacteria in soils (and one stream) by tracking isotopically labeled substrates into newly synthesized DNA. Predatory bacteria were more active than nonpredators, and obligate predators, such as Bdellovibrionales and Vampirovibrionales, increased in growth rate in response to added substrates at the base of the food chain, strong evidence of trophic control. This work provides quantitative measures of predator activity and suggests that predatory bacteria-along with protists, nematodes, and phages-are active and important in microbial food webs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce A Hungate
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Jane C Marks
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Mary E Power
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Egbert Schwartz
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Kees Jan van Groenigen
- Department of Geography, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Steven J Blazewicz
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
| | - Peter Chuckran
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Paul Dijkstra
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Brianna K Finley
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Mary K Firestone
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Megan Foley
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Alex Greenlon
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
| | - Michaela Hayer
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Kirsten S Hofmockel
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington, USA
- Department of Agronomy, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Benjamin J Koch
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Michelle C Mack
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Rebecca L Mau
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Samantha N Miller
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Ember M Morrissey
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Jeffrey R Propster
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Alicia M Purcell
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Ella Sieradzki
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Evan P Starr
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Bram W G Stone
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - César Terrer
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
| | - Jennifer Pett-Ridge
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
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Sieradzki ET, Koch BJ, Greenlon A, Sachdeva R, Malmstrom RR, Mau RL, Blazewicz SJ, Firestone MK, Hofmockel KS, Schwartz E, Hungate BA, Pett-Ridge J. Measurement Error and Resolution in Quantitative Stable Isotope Probing: Implications for Experimental Design. mSystems 2020; 5:e00151-20. [PMID: 32694124 PMCID: PMC7566279 DOI: 10.1128/msystems.00151-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantitative stable isotope probing (qSIP) estimates isotope tracer incorporation into DNA of individual microbes and can link microbial biodiversity and biogeochemistry in complex communities. As with any quantitative estimation technique, qSIP involves measurement error, and a fuller understanding of error, precision, and statistical power benefits qSIP experimental design and data interpretation. We used several qSIP data sets-from soil and seawater microbiomes-to evaluate how variance in isotope incorporation estimates depends on organism abundance and resolution of the density fractionation scheme. We assessed statistical power for replicated qSIP studies, plus sensitivity and specificity for unreplicated designs. As a taxon's abundance increases, the variance of its weighted mean density declines. Nine fractions appear to be a reasonable trade-off between cost and precision for most qSIP applications. Increasing the number of density fractions beyond that reduces variance, although the magnitude of this benefit declines with additional fractions. Our analysis suggests that, if a taxon has an isotope enrichment of 10 atom% excess, there is a 60% chance that this will be detected as significantly different from zero (with alpha 0.1). With five replicates, isotope enrichment of 5 atom% could be detected with power (0.6) and alpha (0.1). Finally, we illustrate the importance of internal standards, which can help to calibrate per sample conversions of %GC to mean weighted density. These results should benefit researchers designing future SIP experiments and provide a useful reference for metagenomic SIP applications where both financial and computational limitations constrain experimental scope.IMPORTANCE One of the biggest challenges in microbial ecology is correlating the identity of microorganisms with the roles they fulfill in natural environmental systems. Studies of microbes in pure culture reveal much about their genomic content and potential functions but may not reflect an organism's activity within its natural community. Culture-independent studies supply a community-wide view of composition and function in the context of community interactions but often fail to link the two. Quantitative stable isotope probing (qSIP) is a method that can link the identity and functional activity of specific microbes within a naturally occurring community. Here, we explore how the resolution of density gradient fractionation affects the error and precision of qSIP results, how they may be improved via additional experimental replication, and discuss cost-benefit balanced scenarios for SIP experimental design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ella T Sieradzki
- University of California Berkeley, Environmental Science and Policy Management, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Benjamin J Koch
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Alex Greenlon
- University of California Berkeley, Environmental Science and Policy Management, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Rohan Sachdeva
- University of California Berkeley, Earth and Planetary Sciences, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Rex R Malmstrom
- Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Rebecca L Mau
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Steven J Blazewicz
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
| | - Mary K Firestone
- University of California Berkeley, Environmental Science and Policy Management, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Kirsten S Hofmockel
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington, USA
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Organismal Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Egbert Schwartz
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Bruce A Hungate
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Jennifer Pett-Ridge
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
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von Wettberg EJB, Chang PL, Başdemir F, Carrasquila-Garcia N, Korbu LB, Moenga SM, Bedada G, Greenlon A, Moriuchi KS, Singh V, Cordeiro MA, Noujdina NV, Dinegde KN, Shah Sani SGA, Getahun T, Vance L, Bergmann E, Lindsay D, Mamo BE, Warschefsky EJ, Dacosta-Calheiros E, Marques E, Yilmaz MA, Cakmak A, Rose J, Migneault A, Krieg CP, Saylak S, Temel H, Friesen ML, Siler E, Akhmetov Z, Ozcelik H, Kholova J, Can C, Gaur P, Yildirim M, Sharma H, Vadez V, Tesfaye K, Woldemedhin AF, Tar'an B, Aydogan A, Bukun B, Penmetsa RV, Berger J, Kahraman A, Nuzhdin SV, Cook DR. Ecology and genomics of an important crop wild relative as a prelude to agricultural innovation. Nat Commun 2018; 9:649. [PMID: 29440741 PMCID: PMC5811434 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-02867-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Domesticated species are impacted in unintended ways during domestication and breeding. Changes in the nature and intensity of selection impart genetic drift, reduce diversity, and increase the frequency of deleterious alleles. Such outcomes constrain our ability to expand the cultivation of crops into environments that differ from those under which domestication occurred. We address this need in chickpea, an important pulse legume, by harnessing the diversity of wild crop relatives. We document an extreme domestication-related genetic bottleneck and decipher the genetic history of wild populations. We provide evidence of ancestral adaptations for seed coat color crypsis, estimate the impact of environment on genetic structure and trait values, and demonstrate variation between wild and cultivated accessions for agronomic properties. A resource of genotyped, association mapping progeny functionally links the wild and cultivated gene pools and is an essential resource chickpea for improvement, while our methods inform collection of other wild crop progenitor species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J B von Wettberg
- Department of Biological Sciences and International Center for Tropical Botany, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA.
- Department of Plant and Soil Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, 05405, USA.
| | - Peter L Chang
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
| | - Fatma Başdemir
- Faculty of Agriculture, Dicle University, Diyarbakir, 21280, Turkey
| | | | - Lijalem Balcha Korbu
- Institute of Biotechnology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, 32853, Ethiopia
- Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa, P.O. Box 2003, Ethiopia
| | - Susan M Moenga
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Gashaw Bedada
- Hawassa University, Hawassa, 005, Ethiopia
- Oromia Agricultural Research Institute (OARI), Addis Ababa, P.O. Box 81265, Ethiopia
| | - Alex Greenlon
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Ken S Moriuchi
- Department of Biological Sciences and International Center for Tropical Botany, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA
| | - Vasantika Singh
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
| | - Matilde A Cordeiro
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
| | - Nina V Noujdina
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, St. Petersburg, 195251, Russia
| | - Kassaye Negash Dinegde
- Institute of Biotechnology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, 32853, Ethiopia
- Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa, P.O. Box 2003, Ethiopia
| | - Syed Gul Abbas Shah Sani
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan
| | - Tsegaye Getahun
- Institute of Biotechnology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, 32853, Ethiopia
| | - Lisa Vance
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Emily Bergmann
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Donna Lindsay
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N5A8, Canada
| | - Bullo Erena Mamo
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Emily J Warschefsky
- Department of Biological Sciences and International Center for Tropical Botany, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA
| | - Emmanuel Dacosta-Calheiros
- Department of Biological Sciences and International Center for Tropical Botany, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA
| | - Edward Marques
- Department of Biological Sciences and International Center for Tropical Botany, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA
- Department of Plant and Soil Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, 05405, USA
| | | | - Ahmet Cakmak
- Department of Field Crops, Faculty of Agriculture, Harran University, Sanliurfa, 63100, Turkey
| | - Janna Rose
- Department of Biological Sciences and International Center for Tropical Botany, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA
| | - Andrew Migneault
- Department of Biological Sciences and International Center for Tropical Botany, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA
| | - Christopher P Krieg
- Department of Biological Sciences and International Center for Tropical Botany, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA
- Department of Botany, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 33181, USA
| | - Sevgi Saylak
- Faculty of Agriculture, Dicle University, Diyarbakir, 21280, Turkey
| | - Hamdi Temel
- Faculty of Agriculture, Dicle University, Diyarbakir, 21280, Turkey
| | - Maren L Friesen
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48823, USA
| | - Eleanor Siler
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48823, USA
| | - Zhaslan Akhmetov
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Huseyin Ozcelik
- Black Sea Agricultural Research Institute, Samsun, P.O. Box 39, Turkey
| | - Jana Kholova
- International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, 502324, Telangana, India
| | - Canan Can
- Department of Biology, Gaziantep University, Gaziantep, 27310, Turkey
| | - Pooran Gaur
- International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, 502324, Telangana, India
| | - Mehmet Yildirim
- Faculty of Agriculture, Dicle University, Diyarbakir, 21280, Turkey
| | - Hari Sharma
- International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, 502324, Telangana, India
| | - Vincent Vadez
- International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, 502324, Telangana, India
| | - Kassahun Tesfaye
- Institute of Biotechnology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, 32853, Ethiopia
| | | | - Bunyamin Tar'an
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N5A8, Canada
| | - Abdulkadir Aydogan
- Central Research Institute for Field Crops (CRIFC), Ankara, 06042, Turkey
| | - Bekir Bukun
- Faculty of Agriculture, Dicle University, Diyarbakir, 21280, Turkey
| | - R Varma Penmetsa
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Jens Berger
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), Agriculture and Food, Perth, 6014, WA, Australia
| | - Abdullah Kahraman
- Department of Field Crops, Faculty of Agriculture, Harran University, Sanliurfa, 63100, Turkey
| | - Sergey V Nuzhdin
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, St. Petersburg, 195251, Russia
| | - Douglas R Cook
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
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