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Rexin D, Rachmadi AT, Hewitt J. Persistence of Infectious Human Norovirus in Estuarine Water. Food Environ Virol 2024; 16:58-64. [PMID: 38165609 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-023-09577-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/04/2024]
Abstract
Norovirus is the predominant cause of viral acute gastroenteritis globally. While person-to-person is the most reported transmission route, norovirus is also associated with waterborne and foodborne illness, including from the consumption of contaminated bivalve molluscan shellfish. The main cause of shellfish contamination is via the bioaccumulation of norovirus from growing waters impacted by human wastewater. However, data on the persistence of infectious norovirus in the environment are limited due to a lack of a human norovirus culture method in the past. In this study, we applied the recently established method of norovirus replication in human intestinal enteroids to determine the persistence of norovirus in artificial estuarine water at 25 ppt for up to 21 days at 4 °C and 16 °C in the dark. Infectious norovirus was detected for up to 21 days. The relative infectivity declined from 100 to 3% at day 21, with decay rate constants of 0.07 day-1 at 4 °C and 0.17 day-1 at 16 °C. There was no decrease in norovirus titres as measured by reverse transcription-droplet digital PCR (RT-ddPCR), confirming the lack of the relationship between norovirus infectivity and direct detection by PCR. The results confirm that norovirus can remain infectious for at least 3 weeks in an estuarine water environment, presenting associated health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Rexin
- Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd. (ESR), Porirua, 5240, New Zealand.
| | - Andri T Rachmadi
- Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd. (ESR), Porirua, 5240, New Zealand
| | - Joanne Hewitt
- Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd. (ESR), Porirua, 5240, New Zealand
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Lamori JG, Xue J, Rachmadi AT, Lopez GU, Kitajima M, Gerba CP, Pepper IL, Brooks JP, Sherchan S. Removal of fecal indicator bacteria and antibiotic resistant genes in constructed wetlands. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2019; 26:10188-10197. [PMID: 30758793 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-04468-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater discharge evidently increased bacterial diversity in the receiving waterbodies. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a constructed wetland in reducing fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) and antibiotic resistant genes (ARGs). We determined the prevalence and attenuation of fecal indicator bacteria including Escherichia coli and enterococci, along with ARGs, and human-associated Bacteroidales (HF183) markers by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) method. Three types of water samples (inlet, intermediate, and outlet) from a constructed wetland were collected once a month from May to December in 2013. The overall reduction of E. coli was 50.0% based on culture method. According to the qPCR result, the overall removal rate of E. coli was only 6.7%. Enterococci were found in 62.5% of the wetland samples. HF183 genetic marker was detected in all final effluent samples with concentration ranging from 1.8 to 4.22 log10 gene copies (GC)/100 ml. Of the ARGs tested, erythromycin resistance genes (ermF) were detected in 79.2% of the wetland samples. The class 1 integrase (intI1) was detected in all water samples with concentration ranging from 0.83 to 5.54 log10 GC/100 ml. The overall removal rates of enterococci, HF183, intI1, and ermF were 84.0%, 66.6%, 67.2%, and 13.1%, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer G Lamori
- Department of Global Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Jia Xue
- Department of Global Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Andri T Rachmadi
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North13 West8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-8628, Japan
| | - Gerardo U Lopez
- School of Animal and Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The University of Arizona, 1007 E. Lowell St., Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Masaaki Kitajima
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North13 West8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-8628, Japan
| | - Charles P Gerba
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, 1117 E. Lowell St., Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Ian L Pepper
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, 1117 E. Lowell St., Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
- Water and Energy Sustainable Technology (WEST) Center, The University of Arizona, 2959 West Calle Agua Nueva, Tucson, AZ, 85745, USA
| | - John P Brooks
- Genetics and Sustainable Agriculture Unit, USDA-ARS, Mississippi State, MS, 39762, USA
| | - Samendra Sherchan
- Department of Global Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA.
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Kitajima M, Rachmadi AT, Iker BC, Haramoto E, Gerba CP. Temporal variations in genotype distribution of human sapoviruses and Aichi virus 1 in wastewater in Southern Arizona, United States. J Appl Microbiol 2018; 124:1324-1332. [PMID: 29377502 DOI: 10.1111/jam.13712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Revised: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 01/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
AIMS To investigate the molecular epidemiology, especially temporal variations in genotype distribution, of sapoviruses and Aichi virus 1 (AiV-1) in Arizona, United States, by examining wastewater. METHODS AND RESULTS A total of 26 wastewater samples (13 influent and 13 effluent) were collected monthly from a wastewater treatment plant and viral strains were identified through nested reverse transcription-PCR followed by cloning and sequencing analysis. Identified sapovirus strains were classified into seven genotypes belonging to three genogroups (GI, GII, and GV): GI.1, GI.2, GI.3, GII.1, GII.2, GII.8 and GV.1, with a clear temporal shift. The majority of AiV-1 strains identified from the wastewater samples were classified into genotype B, and genotype A strains were identified in only two samples. CONCLUSIONS We identified a number of sapovirus and AiV-1 strains belonging to multiple genotypes in wastewater samples collected over a 13-month period. Our results suggested a temporal shift in prevalent genotypes in the community. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY This is the first study elucidating the genotype distribution of human sapoviruses and AiV-1 in wastewater in the United States. Wastewater surveillance is especially useful for understanding molecular epidemiology of viruses that are less commonly tested in clinical diagnosis, including sapoviruses and AiV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kitajima
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - A T Rachmadi
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - B C Iker
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - E Haramoto
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, Kofu, Yamanashi, Japan
| | - C P Gerba
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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Rachmadi AT, Torrey JR, Kitajima M. Human polyomavirus: Advantages and limitations as a human-specific viral marker in aquatic environments. Water Res 2016; 105:456-469. [PMID: 27665433 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2016] [Revised: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Human polyomaviruses (HPyVs) cause persistent infections in organs such as kidney, brain, skin, liver, respiratory tract, etc., and some types of HPyV are constantly excreted in the urine and/or feces of infected and healthy individuals. The use of an enteric virus as an indicator for human sewage/waste contamination in aquatic environments has been proposed; HPyVs are a good candidate since they are routinely found in environmental water samples from different geographical areas with relatively high abundance. HPyVs are highly human specific, having been detected in human waste from all age ranges and undetected in animal waste samples. In addition, HPyVs show a certain degree of resistance to high temperature, chlorine, UV, and low pH, with molecular signals (i.e., DNA) persisting in water for several months. Recently, various concentration methods (electronegative/positive filtration, ultrafiltration, skim-milk flocculation) and detection methods (immunofluorescence assay, cell culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), integrated cell culture PCR (ICC-PCR), and quantitative PCR) have been developed and demonstrated for HPyV, which has enabled the identification and quantification of HPyV in various environmental samples, such as sewage, surface water, seawater, drinking water, and shellfish. In this paper, we summarize these recent advancements in detection methods and the accumulation of environmental surveillance and laboratory-scale experiment data, and discuss the potential advantages as well as limitations of HPyV as a human-specific viral marker in aquatic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andri T Rachmadi
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Japan
| | - Jason R Torrey
- Department of Urban Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masaaki Kitajima
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Japan.
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Rachmadi AT, Kitajima M, Pepper IL, Gerba CP. Enteric and indicator virus removal by surface flow wetlands. Sci Total Environ 2016; 542:976-82. [PMID: 26562344 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Revised: 10/26/2015] [Accepted: 11/01/2015] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the occurrence and attenuation of several human enteric viruses (i.e., norovirus, adenovirus, Aichi virus 1, polyomaviruses, and enterovirus) as well as a plant virus, pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), at two surface flow wetlands in Arizona. The retention time in one of the wetlands was seven days, whereas in the other wetland it could not be defined. Water samples were collected at the inlet and outlet from the wetlands over nine months, and concentration of viral genomes was determined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Of the human enteric viruses tested, adenovirus and Aichi virus 1 were found in the greatest prevalence in treated wastewater (i.e., inlet of the wetlands). Reduction efficiencies of enteric viruses by the wetlands ranged from 1 to 3 log10. Polyomaviruses were generally removed to below detection limit, indicating at least 2 to 4 log10 removal. PMMoV was detected in a greater concentration in the inlet of both wetlands for all the viruses tested (10(4) to 10(7) genome copies/L), but exhibited little or no removal (1 log10 or less). To determine the factors associated with virus genome attenuation (as determined by qPCR), the persistence of PMMoV and poliovirus type 1 (an enterovirus) was studied in autoclaved and natural wetland water, and deionized water incubated under three different temperatures for 21 days. A combination of elevated water temperature and biological activities reduced poliovirus by 1 to 4 log10, while PMMoV was not significantly reduced during this time period. Overall, PMMoV showed much greater persistence than human viruses in the wetland treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andri T Rachmadi
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, 1117 E. Lowell St., Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Masaaki Kitajima
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, 1117 E. Lowell St., Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Ian L Pepper
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, 1117 E. Lowell St., Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Charles P Gerba
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, 1117 E. Lowell St., Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.
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Kitajima M, Iker BC, Rachmadi AT, Haramoto E, Gerba CP. Quantification and genetic analysis of salivirus/klassevirus in wastewater in Arizona, USA. Food Environ Virol 2014; 6:213-6. [PMID: 24863500 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-014-9148-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2014] [Accepted: 05/03/2014] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Salivirus/klassevirus sequences were identified in 7 (15%) wastewater samples collected in Arizona monthly for a year, with the highest concentration of 2.28 × 10(5) and 2.46 × 10(4) copies/L in influent and effluent, respectively. This is the first report of quantification and genetic analysis of salivirus/klassevirus in water samples in the United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaaki Kitajima
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, 1117 E. Lowell St., Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA,
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