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Leonard-Murali S, Bhaskarla C, Yadav GS, Maurya SK, Galiveti CR, Tobin JA, Kann RJ, Ashwat E, Murphy PS, Chakka AB, Soman V, Cantalupo PG, Zhuo X, Vyas G, Kozak DL, Kelly LM, Smith E, Chandran UR, Hsu YMS, Kammula US. Uveal melanoma immunogenomics predict immunotherapy resistance and susceptibility. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2863. [PMID: 38627362 PMCID: PMC11021475 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46906-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Immune checkpoint inhibition has shown success in treating metastatic cutaneous melanoma but has limited efficacy against metastatic uveal melanoma, a rare variant arising from the immune privileged eye. To better understand this resistance, we comprehensively profile 100 human uveal melanoma metastases using clinicogenomics, transcriptomics, and tumor infiltrating lymphocyte potency assessment. We find that over half of these metastases harbor tumor infiltrating lymphocytes with potent autologous tumor specificity, despite low mutational burden and resistance to prior immunotherapies. However, we observe strikingly low intratumoral T cell receptor clonality within the tumor microenvironment even after prior immunotherapies. To harness these quiescent tumor infiltrating lymphocytes, we develop a transcriptomic biomarker to enable in vivo identification and ex vivo liberation to counter their growth suppression. Finally, we demonstrate that adoptive transfer of these transcriptomically selected tumor infiltrating lymphocytes can promote tumor immunity in patients with metastatic uveal melanoma when other immunotherapies are incapable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shravan Leonard-Murali
- UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Solid Tumor Cellular Immunotherapy Program, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Chetana Bhaskarla
- UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Solid Tumor Cellular Immunotherapy Program, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Ghanshyam S Yadav
- UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Solid Tumor Cellular Immunotherapy Program, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Sudeep K Maurya
- UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Solid Tumor Cellular Immunotherapy Program, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Chenna R Galiveti
- UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Solid Tumor Cellular Immunotherapy Program, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Joshua A Tobin
- UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Solid Tumor Cellular Immunotherapy Program, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Rachel J Kann
- UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Eishan Ashwat
- UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Patrick S Murphy
- UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Solid Tumor Cellular Immunotherapy Program, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Anish B Chakka
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Vishal Soman
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Paul G Cantalupo
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Xinming Zhuo
- UPMC Genome Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Gopi Vyas
- UPMC Genome Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Dara L Kozak
- UPMC Genome Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Lindsey M Kelly
- UPMC Genome Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Ed Smith
- UPMC Genome Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Uma R Chandran
- UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Yen-Michael S Hsu
- UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- UPMC Immunologic Monitoring and Cellular Products Laboratory, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Udai S Kammula
- UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
- Solid Tumor Cellular Immunotherapy Program, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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Sun R, Guo S, Shuda Y, Chakka AB, Rigatti LH, Zhao G, Ali MAE, Park CY, Chandran U, Yu J, Bakkenist CJ, Shuda M, Moore PS, Chang Y. Mitotic CDK1 and 4E-BP1 I: Loss of 4E-BP1 serine 82 phosphorylation promotes proliferative polycystic disease and lymphoma in aged or sublethally irradiated mice. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0282722. [PMID: 37145994 PMCID: PMC10162543 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0282722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023] Open
Abstract
4E-BP1 is a tumor suppressor regulating cap-dependent translation that is in turn controlled by mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) or cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (CDK1) phosphorylation. 4E-BP1 serine 82 (S82) is phosphorylated by CDK1, but not mTOR, and the consequences of this mitosis-specific phosphorylation are unknown. Knock-in mice were generated with a single 4E-BP1 S82 alanine (S82A) substitution leaving other phosphorylation sites intact. S82A mice were fertile and exhibited no gross developmental or behavioral abnormalities, but the homozygotes developed diffuse and severe polycystic liver and kidney disease with aging, and lymphoid malignancies after irradiation. Sublethal irradiation caused immature T-cell lymphoma only in S82A mice while S82A homozygous mice have normal T-cell hematopoiesis before irradiation. Whole genome sequencing identified PTEN mutations in S82A lymphoma and impaired PTEN expression was verified in S82A lymphomas derived cell lines. Our study suggests that the absence of 4E-BP1S82 phosphorylation, a subtle change in 4E-BP1 phosphorylation, might predispose to polycystic proliferative disease and lymphoma under certain stressful circumstances, such as aging and irradiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Sun
- Cancer Virology Program, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Siying Guo
- Cancer Virology Program, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Yoko Shuda
- Cancer Virology Program, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Anish B. Chakka
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Lora H. Rigatti
- Division of Laboratory Animal Resources, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Guangyi Zhao
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Mohammed A. E. Ali
- Department of Pathology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, Perlmutter Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Christopher Y. Park
- Department of Pathology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, Perlmutter Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Uma Chandran
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Jian Yu
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Christopher J. Bakkenist
- Radiation Oncology, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Masahiro Shuda
- Cancer Virology Program, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Patrick S. Moore
- Cancer Virology Program, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Yuan Chang
- Cancer Virology Program, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
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Alcorn JF, Avula R, Chakka AB, Schwarzmann WE, Nowalk MP, Lin CJ, Ortiz MA, Horne WT, Chandran UR, Nagg JP, Zimmerman RK, Cole KS, Moehling KK, Martin JM. Differential gene expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from children immunized with inactivated influenza vaccine. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2020; 16:1782-1790. [PMID: 32298194 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2020.1711677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The human immune response to inactivated influenza vaccine is dynamic and impacted by age and preexisting immunity. Our goal was to identify postvaccination transcriptomic changes in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from children. Blood samples were obtained before and at 3 or 7 days postvaccination with 2016-2017 quadrivalent inactivated influenza vaccine and RNA sequencing was performed. There were 1,466 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) for the Day 0-Day 3 group and 513 DEGs for the Day 0-Day 7 group. Thirty-three genes were common between the two groups. The majority of the transcriptomic changes at Day 3 represented innate inflammation and apoptosis pathways. Day 7 DEGs were characterized by activation of cellular processes, including the regulation of cytoskeleton, junctions, and metabolism, and increased expression of immunoglobulin genes. DEGs at Day 3 were compared between older and younger children revealing increased inflammatory gene expression in the older group. Vaccine history in the year prior to the study was characterized by robust DEGs at Day 3 with decreased phagosome and dendritic cell maturation in those who had been vaccinated in the previous year. PBMC responses to inactivated influenza vaccination in children differed significantly by the timing of sampling, patient age, and vaccine history. These data provide insight into the expected molecular pathways to be temporally altered by influenza vaccination in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- John F Alcorn
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Raghunandan Avula
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Anish B Chakka
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - William E Schwarzmann
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | | | | | - Marianna A Ortiz
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,Center for Vaccine Research, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - William T Horne
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Uma R Chandran
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Jennifer P Nagg
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Richard K Zimmerman
- Department of Family Medicine, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Kelly S Cole
- Center for Vaccine Research, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Krissy K Moehling
- Department of Family Medicine, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Judith M Martin
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Faden DL, Concha-Benavente F, Chakka AB, McMichael EL, Chandran U, Ferris RL. Immunogenomic correlates of response to cetuximab monotherapy in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Head Neck 2019; 41:2591-2601. [PMID: 30828910 DOI: 10.1002/hed.25726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mechanisms of resistance to immune-modulating cancer treatments are poorly understood. Using a novel cohort of patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), we investigated mechanisms of immune escape from epidermal growth factor receptor-specific monoclonal antibody (mAb) therapy. METHODS HNSCC tumors (n = 20) from a prospective trial of neoadjuvant cetuximab monotherapy underwent whole-exome sequencing. Expression of killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptor (KIR) and human leukocyte antigen-C (HLA-C) and the effect of KIR blockade were assessed in HNSCC cell lines. RESULTS Nonresponders to cetuximab had an increased rate of mutations in HLA-C compared to responders and HNSCC tumors (n = 528) in The Cancer Genome Atlas (P < 0.00001). In vitro, cetuximab-activated natural killer (NK) cells induced upregulation of HLA-C on HNSCC cells (P < 0.01) via interferon gamma. Treatment of NK cells with the anti-KIR mAb lirilumab increased killing of HNSCC cells (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS Alterations in HLA-C may provide a mechanism of immune evasion through disruption of NK activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel L Faden
- Department of Otolaryngology, Division of Head and Neck Surgical Oncology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Boston, Massachusetts.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Fernando Concha-Benavente
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Anish B Chakka
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | | | - Uma Chandran
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Robert L Ferris
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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Frahm KA, Peffer ME, Zhang JY, Luthra S, Chakka AB, Couger MB, Chandran UR, Monaghan AP, DeFranco DB. Research Resource: The Dexamethasone Transcriptome in Hypothalamic Embryonic Neural Stem Cells. Mol Endocrinol 2015; 30:144-54. [PMID: 26606517 DOI: 10.1210/me.2015-1258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to excess glucocorticoids during fetal development has long-lasting physiological and behavioral consequences, although the mechanisms are poorly understood. The impact of prenatal glucocorticoids exposure on stress responses in juvenile and adult offspring implicates the developing hypothalamus as a target of adverse prenatal glucocorticoid action. Therefore, primary cultures of hypothalamic neural-progenitor/stem cells (NPSCs) derived from mouse embryos (embryonic day 14.5) were used to identify the glucocorticoid transcriptome in both males and females. NPSCs were treated with vehicle or the synthetic glucocorticoid dexamethasone (dex; 100nM) for 4 hours and total RNA analyzed using RNA-Sequencing. Bioinformatic analysis demonstrated that primary hypothalamic NPSC cultures expressed relatively high levels of a number of genes regulating stem cell proliferation and hypothalamic progenitor function. Interesting, although these cells express glucocorticoid receptors (GRs), only low levels of sex-steroid receptors are expressed, which suggested that sex-specific differentially regulated genes identified are mediated by genetic and not hormonal influences. We also identified known or novel GR-target coding and noncoding genes that are either regulated equivalently in male and female NPSCs or differential responsiveness in one sex. Using gene ontology analysis, the top functional network identified was cell proliferation and using bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation observed a reduction in proliferation of hypothalamic NPSCs after dexamethasone treatment. Our studies provide the first characterization and description of glucocorticoid-regulated pathways in male and female embryonically derived hypothalamic NPSCs and identified GR-target genes during hypothalamic development. These findings may provide insight into potential mechanisms responsible for the long-term consequences of fetal glucocorticoid exposure in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krystle A Frahm
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology (K.A.F., J.Y.Z., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Program in Integrative Molecular Biology (M.E.P., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Biomedical Informatics (S.L., A.B.C., U.R.C.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics (M.B.C.), Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma; and Department of Neurobiology (A.P.M.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Melanie E Peffer
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology (K.A.F., J.Y.Z., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Program in Integrative Molecular Biology (M.E.P., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Biomedical Informatics (S.L., A.B.C., U.R.C.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics (M.B.C.), Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma; and Department of Neurobiology (A.P.M.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Janie Y Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology (K.A.F., J.Y.Z., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Program in Integrative Molecular Biology (M.E.P., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Biomedical Informatics (S.L., A.B.C., U.R.C.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics (M.B.C.), Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma; and Department of Neurobiology (A.P.M.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Soumya Luthra
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology (K.A.F., J.Y.Z., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Program in Integrative Molecular Biology (M.E.P., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Biomedical Informatics (S.L., A.B.C., U.R.C.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics (M.B.C.), Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma; and Department of Neurobiology (A.P.M.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Anish B Chakka
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology (K.A.F., J.Y.Z., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Program in Integrative Molecular Biology (M.E.P., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Biomedical Informatics (S.L., A.B.C., U.R.C.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics (M.B.C.), Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma; and Department of Neurobiology (A.P.M.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Matthew B Couger
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology (K.A.F., J.Y.Z., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Program in Integrative Molecular Biology (M.E.P., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Biomedical Informatics (S.L., A.B.C., U.R.C.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics (M.B.C.), Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma; and Department of Neurobiology (A.P.M.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Uma R Chandran
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology (K.A.F., J.Y.Z., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Program in Integrative Molecular Biology (M.E.P., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Biomedical Informatics (S.L., A.B.C., U.R.C.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics (M.B.C.), Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma; and Department of Neurobiology (A.P.M.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - A Paula Monaghan
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology (K.A.F., J.Y.Z., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Program in Integrative Molecular Biology (M.E.P., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Biomedical Informatics (S.L., A.B.C., U.R.C.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics (M.B.C.), Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma; and Department of Neurobiology (A.P.M.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Donald B DeFranco
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology (K.A.F., J.Y.Z., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Program in Integrative Molecular Biology (M.E.P., D.B.D.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Biomedical Informatics (S.L., A.B.C., U.R.C.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics (M.B.C.), Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma; and Department of Neurobiology (A.P.M.), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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