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Stary V, Wolf B, Unterleuthner D, List J, Talic M, Laengle J, Beer A, Strobl J, Stary G, Dolznig H, Bergmann M. Short-course radiotherapy promotes pro-inflammatory macrophages via extracellular vesicles in human rectal cancer. J Immunother Cancer 2021; 8:jitc-2020-000667. [PMID: 32817359 PMCID: PMC7437887 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2020-000667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) constitute the most abundant immune cells in the tumor stroma initiating pro-inflammatory (M1) or immunosuppressive (M2) responses depending on their polarization status. Advances in tumor immunotherapy call for a detailed understanding of potential immunogenic mechanisms of irradiation routinely applied in rectal cancer patients. METHODS To test the effects of radiotherapy on TAM, we ex vivo irradiated tissue samples of human rectal cancer and assessed the phenotype by flow cytometry. We furthermore evaluated the distribution of leucocyte subsets in tissue sections of patients after short-course radiotherapy and compared findings to non-pretreated rectal cancer using an immunostaining approach. Organotypic assays (OTA) consisting of macrophages, cancer-associated fibroblast and cancer cell lines were used to dissect the immunological consequences of irradiation in macrophages. RESULTS We demonstrate that short-course neoadjuvant radiotherapy in rectal cancer patients is associated with a shift in the polarization of TAM towards an M1-like pro-inflammatory phenotype. In addition, ex vivo irradiation caused an increase in the phagocytic activity and enhanced expression of markers associated with stimulatory signals necessary for T-cell activation. In OTA we observed that this alteration in macrophage polarization could be mediated by extracellular vesicles (EV) derived from irradiated tumor cells. We identified high mobility group box 1 in EV from irradiated tumor cells as a potential effector signal in that crosstalk. CONCLUSIONS Our findings highlight macrophages as potential effector cells upon irradiation in rectal cancer by diminishing their immunosuppressive phenotype and activate pro-inflammation. Our data indicate that clinically applied short-term radiotherapy for rectal cancer may be exploited to stimulate immunogenic macrophages and suggest to target the polarization status of macrophages to enhance future immunotherapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Stary
- Division of General Surgery, Department of Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer Center, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Brigitte Wolf
- Division of General Surgery, Department of Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer Center, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Daniela Unterleuthner
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Julia List
- Division of General Surgery, Department of Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer Center, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Merjem Talic
- Division of General Surgery, Department of Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer Center, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Johannes Laengle
- Division of General Surgery, Department of Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer Center, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Andrea Beer
- Department of Pathology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Johanna Strobl
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Georg Stary
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Helmut Dolznig
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Bergmann
- Department of Visceral Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer Center, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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2
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Unterleuthner D, Neuhold P, Schwarz K, Janker L, Neuditschko B, Nivarthi H, Crncec I, Kramer N, Unger C, Hengstschläger M, Eferl R, Moriggl R, Sommergruber W, Gerner C, Dolznig H. Cancer-associated fibroblast-derived WNT2 increases tumor angiogenesis in colon cancer. Angiogenesis 2019; 23:159-177. [PMID: 31667643 PMCID: PMC7160098 DOI: 10.1007/s10456-019-09688-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Revised: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
WNT2 acts as a pro-angiogenic factor in placental vascularization and increases angiogenesis in liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (ECs) and other ECs. Increased WNT2 expression is detectable in many carcinomas and participates in tumor progression. In human colorectal cancer (CRC), WNT2 is selectively elevated in cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), leading to increased invasion and metastasis. However, if there is a role for WNT2 in colon cancer, angiogenesis was not addressed so far. We demonstrate that WNT2 enhances EC migration/invasion, while it induces canonical WNT signaling in a small subset of cells. Knockdown of WNT2 in CAFs significantly reduced angiogenesis in a physiologically relevant assay, which allows precise assessment of key angiogenic properties. In line with these results, expression of WNT2 in otherwise WNT2-devoid skin fibroblasts led to increased angiogenesis. In CRC xenografts, WNT2 overexpression resulted in enhanced vessel density and tumor volume. Moreover, WNT2 expression correlates with vessel markers in human CRC. Secretome profiling of CAFs by mass spectrometry and cytokine arrays revealed that proteins associated with pro-angiogenic functions are elevated by WNT2. These included extracellular matrix molecules, ANG-2, IL-6, G-CSF, and PGF. The latter three increased angiogenesis. Thus, stromal-derived WNT2 elevates angiogenesis in CRC by shifting the balance towards pro-angiogenic signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Unterleuthner
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Patrick Neuhold
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Katharina Schwarz
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Lukas Janker
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Benjamin Neuditschko
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Harini Nivarthi
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Cancer Research, Währinger Straße 13a, 1090, Vienna, Austria.,CeMM, Research Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Lazarettgasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ilija Crncec
- Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8, 1090, Vienna, Austria.,Servier Pharma, Tuškanova 37, 10 000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Nina Kramer
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, 1090, Vienna, Austria.,Department for Companion Animals and Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Christine Unger
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Markus Hengstschläger
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Robert Eferl
- Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Richard Moriggl
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Cancer Research, Währinger Straße 13a, 1090, Vienna, Austria.,Institute of Animal Breeding and Genetics, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Wolfgang Sommergruber
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, 1130, Vienna, Austria.,Biotechnology, University of Applied Sciences, FH Campus Wien, Helmut- Qualtinger-Gasse 2, 1030, Vienna, Austria
| | - Christopher Gerner
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Helmut Dolznig
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
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3
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Katholnig K, Schütz B, Fritsch SD, Schörghofer D, Linke M, Sukhbaatar N, Matschinger JM, Unterleuthner D, Hirtl M, Lang M, Herac M, Spittler A, Bergthaler A, Schabbauer G, Bergmann M, Dolznig H, Hengstschläger M, Magnuson MA, Mikula M, Weichhart T. Inactivation of mTORC2 in macrophages is a signature of colorectal cancer that promotes tumorigenesis. JCI Insight 2019; 4:124164. [PMID: 31619583 PMCID: PMC6824305 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.124164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 2 (mTORC2) is a potentially novel and promising anticancer target due to its critical roles in proliferation, apoptosis, and metabolic reprogramming of cancer cells. However, the activity and function of mTORC2 in distinct cells within malignant tissue in vivo is insufficiently explored. Surprisingly, in primary human and mouse colorectal cancer (CRC) samples, mTORC2 signaling could not be detected in tumor cells. In contrast, only macrophages in tumor-adjacent areas showed mTORC2 activity, which was downregulated in stromal macrophages residing within human and mouse tumor tissues. Functionally, inhibition of mTORC2 by specific deletion of Rictor in macrophages stimulated tumorigenesis in a colitis-associated CRC mouse model. This phenotype was driven by a proinflammatory reprogramming of mTORC2-deficient macrophages that promoted colitis via the cytokine SPP1/osteopontin to stimulate tumor growth. In human CRC patients, high SPP1 levels and low mTORC2 activity in tumor-associated macrophages correlated with a worsened clinical prognosis. Treatment of mice with a second-generation mTOR inhibitor that inhibits mTORC2 and mTORC1 exacerbated experimental colorectal tumorigenesis in vivo. In conclusion, mTORC2 activity is confined to macrophages in CRC and limits tumorigenesis. These results suggest activation but not inhibition of mTORC2 as a therapeutic strategy for colitis-associated CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl Katholnig
- Center of Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics
| | - Birgit Schütz
- Center of Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics
| | | | - David Schörghofer
- Center of Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics
| | - Monika Linke
- Center of Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics
| | | | | | | | - Martin Hirtl
- Center of Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics
| | - Michaela Lang
- Department of Internal Medicine III, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology
| | | | - Andreas Spittler
- Core Facility Flow Cytometry & Surgical Research Laboratories, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Andreas Bergthaler
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gernot Schabbauer
- Institute for Physiology, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, and
| | - Michael Bergmann
- Division of General Surgery, Department of Surgery, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Helmut Dolznig
- Center of Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics
| | | | - Mark A Magnuson
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics and Center for Stem Cell Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Mario Mikula
- Center of Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics
| | - Thomas Weichhart
- Center of Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics
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4
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Stary V, Unterleuthner D, Wolf B, Talic M, Strobl J, Beer A, Dolznig H, Bergmann M. Irradiated cancer exosomes promote M1-like polarization of macrophages and enhance their anti-tumoral responses. Eur J Cancer 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2019.01.097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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5
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Kramer N, Schmöllerl J, Unger C, Nivarthi H, Rudisch A, Unterleuthner D, Scherzer M, Riedl A, Artaker M, Crncec I, Lenhardt D, Schwarz T, Prieler B, Han X, Hengstschläger M, Schüler J, Eferl R, Moriggl R, Sommergruber W, Dolznig H. Autocrine WNT2 signaling in fibroblasts promotes colorectal cancer progression. Oncogene 2017; 36:5460-5472. [DOI: 10.1038/onc.2017.144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Revised: 02/15/2017] [Accepted: 04/14/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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6
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Unterleuthner D, Kramer N, Pudelko K, Burian A, Hengstschläger M, Dolznig H. An Optimized 3D Coculture Assay for Preclinical Testing of Pro- and Antiangiogenic Drugs. SLAS DISCOVERY: Advancing the Science of Drug Discovery 2017; 22:602-613. [DOI: 10.1177/2472555216686529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Angiogenesis is a promising target for anticancer therapies, but also for treating other diseases with pathologic vessel development. Targeting the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) pathway did not proof as effective as expected due to emerging intrinsic resistance mechanisms, as well as stromal contributions leading to drug insensitivity. Therefore, alternative strategies affecting the interaction of endothelial cells (ECs) with other stromal cells seem to be more promising. Human preclinical in vitro angiogenesis models successfully recapitulating these interactions are rare, and two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures cannot mimic tissue architecture in vivo. Consequently, models combining three-dimensionality with heterotypic cell interaction seem to be better suited. Here, we report on an improved human fibroblast–EC coculture assay mimicking sprouting angiogenesis from EC-covered microbeads resembling existing endothelial structures. Culture conditions were optimized to assess pro- and antiangiogenic compounds. Important characteristics of angiogenesis, that is, the number of sprouts and branch points, sprout length protrusion, and overall vessel structure areas, were quantified. Notably, the endothelial sprouts display lumen formation and basal membrane establishment. In this model, angiogenesis can be inhibited by genetic interference of pro-angiogenic factors expressed in the fibroblasts. Moreover, bona fide antiangiogenic drugs decreased, whereas pro-angiogenic factors increased vessel formation in 24-well and 96-well settings, demonstrating the applicability for screening approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Unterleuthner
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Nina Kramer
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Karoline Pudelko
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Alexandra Burian
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Markus Hengstschläger
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Helmut Dolznig
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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7
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Riedl A, Schlederer M, Pudelko K, Stadler M, Walter S, Unterleuthner D, Unger C, Kramer N, Hengstschläger M, Kenner L, Pfeiffer D, Krupitza G, Dolznig H. Comparison of cancer cells in 2D vs 3D culture reveals differences in AKT-mTOR-S6K signaling and drug responses. J Cell Sci 2016; 130:203-218. [PMID: 27663511 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.188102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) cancer models are used as preclinical systems to mimic physiologic drug responses. We provide evidence for strong changes of proliferation and metabolic capacity in three dimensions by systematically analyzing spheroids of colon cancer cell lines. Spheroids showed relative lower activities in the AKT, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and S6K (also known as RPS6KB1) signaling pathway compared to cells cultured in two dimensions. We identified spatial alterations in signaling, as the level of phosphorylated RPS6 decreased from the spheroid surface towards the center, which closely coordinated with the tumor areas around vessels in vivo These 3D models displayed augmented anti-tumor responses to AKT-mTOR-S6K or mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway inhibition compared to those in 2D models. Inhibition of AKT-mTOR-S6K resulted in elevated ERK phosphorylation in 2D culture, whereas under these conditions, ERK signaling was reduced in spheroids. Inhibition of MEK1 (also known as MAP2K1) led to decreased AKT-mTOR-S6K signaling in 3D but not in 2D culture. These data indicate a distinct rewiring of signaling in 3D culture and during treatment. Detached tumor-cell clusters in vessels, in addition to circulating single tumor cells, play a putative role in metastasis in human cancers. Hence, the understanding of signaling in spheroids and the responses in the 3D models upon drug treatment might be beneficial for anti-cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelika Riedl
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, Vienna A-1090, Austria
| | - Michaela Schlederer
- Clinical Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Gürtel 18-20, Vienna A-1090, Austria.,Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Cancer Research, Währinger Strasse 13A, Vienna 1090, Austria
| | - Karoline Pudelko
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, Vienna A-1090, Austria
| | - Mira Stadler
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, Vienna A-1090, Austria
| | - Stefanie Walter
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, Vienna A-1090, Austria
| | - Daniela Unterleuthner
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, Vienna A-1090, Austria
| | - Christine Unger
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, Vienna A-1090, Austria
| | - Nina Kramer
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, Vienna A-1090, Austria
| | - Markus Hengstschläger
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, Vienna A-1090, Austria
| | - Lukas Kenner
- Clinical Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Gürtel 18-20, Vienna A-1090, Austria.,Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Cancer Research, Währinger Strasse 13A, Vienna 1090, Austria.,Unit of Pathology of Laboratory Animals (UPLA), University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna 1210, Austria
| | - Dagmar Pfeiffer
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University of Graz, Harrachgasse 21, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Georg Krupitza
- Clinical Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Gürtel 18-20, Vienna A-1090, Austria
| | - Helmut Dolznig
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, Vienna A-1090, Austria
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8
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Stadler M, Walter S, Walzl A, Kramer N, Unger C, Scherzer M, Unterleuthner D, Hengstschläger M, Krupitza G, Dolznig H. Increased complexity in carcinomas: Analyzing and modeling the interaction of human cancer cells with their microenvironment. Semin Cancer Biol 2015; 35:107-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2015.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2015] [Revised: 08/19/2015] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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9
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Walzl A, Unger C, Kramer N, Unterleuthner D, Scherzer M, Hengstschläger M, Schwanzer-Pfeiffer D, Dolznig H. The Resazurin Reduction Assay Can Distinguish Cytotoxic from Cytostatic Compounds in Spheroid Screening Assays. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 19:1047-59. [PMID: 24758920 DOI: 10.1177/1087057114532352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2014] [Accepted: 03/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Spheroid-based cellular screening approaches represent a highly physiologic experimental setup to identify novel anticancer drugs and an innovative preclinical model to reduce the high failure rate of anticancer compounds in clinical trials. The resazurin reduction (RR) assay, known as the alamarBlue or CellTiter-Blue assay, is frequently used to determine cell viability/proliferation capacity in eukaryotic cells. Whether this assay is applicable to assess viability in multicellular spheroids has not been evaluated. We analyzed the RR assay to measure cytotoxic and/or cytostatic responses in tumor cell spheroids compared with conventional 2D cultures. We found that tight cell-cell interactions in compact spheroids hamper resazurin uptake and its subsequent reduction to resorufin, leading to lowered reduction activity in relation to the actual cellular health/cell number. Treatment with staurosporine disrupted close cell-cell contacts, which increased resazurin reduction compared with untreated controls. Loss of tight junctions by trypsinization or addition of EGTA or EDTA restored high resazurin reduction rates in untreated spheroids. In conclusion, the RR assay is unsuited to quantitatively measure cellular health/cell number in compact spheroids. However, it can be used to distinguish between cytotoxic versus cytostatic compounds in spheroids. Restoration of the correlation of cell viability/number to resazurin reduction capacity can be achieved by disruption of tight junctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelika Walzl
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Christine Unger
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria Center of Biomedical Technology, Donau Universität Krems, Krems, Austria
| | - Nina Kramer
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria Center of Biomedical Technology, Donau Universität Krems, Krems, Austria
| | | | - Martin Scherzer
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | - Helmut Dolznig
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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