1
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Battle K, Patel G, Alvarez D, Xu N, Stevens T, Tambe D. Mechanomic Engagement Profile: Integrative Mapping of the Mechanical Properties that Inform Endothelial Cell Motion. FASEB J 2021. [DOI: 10.1096/fasebj.2021.35.s1.02128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Keith Battle
- Center for Lung BiologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
| | | | | | - Ningyong Xu
- Center for Lung BiologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
| | - Troy Stevens
- Center for Lung BiologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
| | - Dhananjay Tambe
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical EngineeringCollege of EngineeringUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
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2
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Nguyen A, Battle K, Paudel S, Bell J, Ayers L, Rich T, Alvarez D, Stevens T, Tambe D. An Automated
In Vitro
Experimental Platform to Analyze Structure, Motion and Forces in Adherent Cells. FASEB J 2021. [DOI: 10.1096/fasebj.2021.35.s1.04679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alyson Nguyen
- Pat Capps Covey College of Allied Health ProfessionsUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
| | - Keith Battle
- Physiology and Cell BiologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
| | - Sunita Paudel
- Physiology and Cell BiologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
| | - Jessica Bell
- Center for Lung BiologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
| | - Linn Ayers
- Center for Lung BiologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
| | - Thomas Rich
- PharmacologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
| | - Diego Alvarez
- Department of Physiology & PharmacologySam Houston State UniversityConroeTX
| | - Troy Stevens
- Physiology and Cell BiologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
- Internal MedicineUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
| | - Dhananjay Tambe
- William B. Burnsed Jr. Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
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3
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Tambe D, Patel NG, Nguyen A, Xu N, Alvarez D, Stevens T. Resolving tractions across cell‐cell adhesion reveals the role of intercellular shear in plithotaxis. FASEB J 2019. [DOI: 10.1096/fasebj.2019.33.1_supplement.lb593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dhananjay Tambe
- Mechanical EngineeringUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
- PharmacologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
- Center for Lung BiologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
| | - Neel G Patel
- Mechanical EngineeringUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
| | - Alyson Nguyen
- Biomedical SciencesUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
| | - Ningyong Xu
- Physiology and Cell BiologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
| | - Diego Alvarez
- Center for Lung BiologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
- Physiology and Cell BiologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
| | - Troy Stevens
- Center for Lung BiologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
- Physiology and Cell BiologyUniversity of South AlabamaMobileAL
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4
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Hardin CC, Chattoraj J, Manomohan G, Colombo J, Nguyen T, Tambe D, Fredberg JJ, Birukov K, Butler JP, Del Gado E, Krishnan R. Long-range stress transmission guides endothelial gap formation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2018; 495:749-754. [PMID: 29137986 PMCID: PMC5761675 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2017.11.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In endothelial gap formation, local tractions exerted by the cell upon its basal adhesions are thought to exceed balancing tensile stresses exerted across the cell-cell junction, thus causing the junction to rupture. To test this idea, we mapped evolving tractions, intercellular stresses, and corresponding growth of paracellular gaps in response to agonist challenge. Contrary to expectation, we found little to no relationship between local tensile stresses and gap formation. Instead, we discovered that intercellular stresses were aligned into striking multi-cellular domains punctuated by defects in stress alignment. Surprisingly, gaps emerged preferentially not at stress hotspots, as predicted, but rather at stress defects. This unexpected behavior is captured by a minimal model of the cell layer as a jammed assembly of cohesive particles undergoing plastic rearrangements under tension. Together, experiments and model suggest a new physical picture in which gap formation, and its consequent effect on endothelial permeability, is determined not by a local stress imbalance at a cell-cell junction but rather by emergence of non-local, cooperative stress reorganization across the cellular collective.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Corey Hardin
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA
| | - Joyjit Chattoraj
- Department of Physics and Institute for Soft Matter Synthesis and Metrology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC
| | - Greeshma Manomohan
- Center for Vascular Biology Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA
| | - Jader Colombo
- Department of Physics and Institute for Soft Matter Synthesis and Metrology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC,Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Trong Nguyen
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA
| | - Dhananjay Tambe
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL
| | - Jeffrey J. Fredberg
- Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA and Dept. Medicine, Harvard Medical School
| | - Konstantin Birukov
- Department of Anesthesiology, Lung Biology Program, University of Maryland School of Medicine
| | - James P. Butler
- Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA and Dept. Medicine, Harvard Medical School
| | - Emanuela Del Gado
- Department of Physics and Institute for Soft Matter Synthesis and Metrology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC
| | - Ramaswamy Krishnan
- Center for Vascular Biology Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA
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5
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Park CY, Zhou EH, Tambe D, Chen B, Lavoie T, Dowell M, Simeonov A, Maloney DJ, Marinkovic A, Tschumperlin DJ, Burger S, Frykenberg M, Butler JP, Stamer WD, Johnson M, Solway J, Fredberg JJ, Krishnan R. High-throughput screening for modulators of cellular contractile force. Integr Biol (Camb) 2015; 7:1318-24. [PMID: 25953078 DOI: 10.1039/c5ib00054h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
When cellular contractile forces are central to pathophysiology, these forces comprise a logical target of therapy. Nevertheless, existing high-throughput screens are limited to upstream signalling intermediates with poorly defined relationships to such a physiological endpoint. Using cellular force as the target, here we report a new screening technology and demonstrate its applications using human airway smooth muscle cells in the context of asthma and Schlemm's canal endothelial cells in the context of glaucoma. This approach identified several drug candidates for both asthma and glaucoma. We attained rates of 1000 compounds per screening day, thus establishing a force-based cellular platform for high-throughput drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan Young Park
- Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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6
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Krishnan R, Hardin C, Dang Q, Manomohan G, Tian X, Dubrovski O, Tambe D, Jader C, Gado E, Butler J, Fredberg J, Birukov K. Force Chains And Gap Formation in Thrombin‐induced Endothelial Permeability. FASEB J 2015. [DOI: 10.1096/fasebj.29.1_supplement.85.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Corey Hardin
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Massachusetts General HospitalUnited States
| | - Quynh Dang
- Center for Vascular Biology ResearchBIDMCUnited States
| | | | - Xinyong Tian
- Section of Pulmonary and Critical Care University of ChicagoUnited States
| | - Oleksii Dubrovski
- Section of Pulmonary and Critical Care University of ChicagoUnited States
| | - Dhananjay Tambe
- Department of Mechanical Engineering University of SouthAlabamaUnited States
| | | | - Emanuela Gado
- Microstructure and RheologyETHZurichSwitzerland
- Department of PhysicsGeorgetown UniversityUnited States
| | - James Butler
- Environmental Health Harvard T Chen School of PublicHealthUnited States
| | - Jeffrey Fredberg
- Environmental Health Harvard T Chen School of PublicHealthUnited States
| | - Konstantin Birukov
- Section of Pulmonary and Critical Care University of ChicagoUnited States
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7
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Steward R, Tambe D, Hardin CC, Krishnan R, Fredberg JJ. Fluid shear, intercellular stress, and endothelial cell alignment. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2015; 308:C657-64. [PMID: 25652451 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00363.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Endothelial cell alignment along the direction of laminar fluid flow is widely understood to be a defining morphological feature of vascular homeostasis. While the role of associated signaling and structural events have been well studied, associated intercellular stresses under laminar fluid shear have remained ill-defined and the role of these stresses in the alignment process has remained obscure. To fill this gap, we report here the tractions as well as the complete in-plane intercellular stress fields measured within the human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) monolayer subjected to a steady laminar fluid shear of 1 Pa. Tractions, intercellular stresses, as well as their time course, heterogeneity, and anisotropy, were measured using monolayer traction microscopy and monolayer stress microscopy. Prior to application of laminar fluid flow, intercellular stresses were largely tensile but fluctuated dramatically in space and in time (317 ± 122 Pa). Within 12 h of the onset of laminar fluid flow, the intercellular stresses decreased substantially but continued to fluctuate dramatically (142 ± 84 Pa). Moreover, tractions and intercellular stresses aligned strongly and promptly (within 1 h) along the direction of fluid flow, whereas the endothelial cell body aligned less strongly and substantially more slowly (12 h). Taken together, these results reveal that steady laminar fluid flow induces prompt reduction in magnitude and alignment of tractions and intercellular stress tensor components followed by the retarded elongation and alignment of the endothelial cell body. Appreciably smaller intercellular stresses supported by cell-cell junctions logically favor smaller incidence of gap formation and thus improved barrier integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Steward
- T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | | | - C Corey Hardin
- Massachussets General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachussets; and
| | - Ramaswamy Krishnan
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachussets
| | - Jeffrey J Fredberg
- T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts;
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8
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Park CY, Burger S, Frykenberg M, Tambe D, Zhou E, Krishnan R, Marinkovic A, Tschumperlin D, Butler J, Lavoie T, Dowell M, Chen B, Gardel M, Green G, Solway J, Fredberg J. HIGH‐THROUGHPUT SCREENING BY TRACTION MICROSCOPY. FASEB J 2013. [DOI: 10.1096/fasebj.27.1_supplement.894.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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9
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Xu J, Chen C, Jiang X, Xu R, Tambe D, Zhang X, Liu L, Lan B, Cai K, Deng L. Effects of micropatterned curvature on the motility and mechanical properties of airway smooth muscle cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2011; 415:591-6. [PMID: 22074822 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2011.10.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2011] [Accepted: 10/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Geometric features such as size and shape of the microenvironment are known to alter cell behaviors such as growth, differentiation, apoptosis, and migration. Little is known, however, about the effect of curvature on cell behaviors despite that many cells reside in curved space of tubular organs such as the bronchial airways. To address this question, we fabricated micropatterned strips that mimic airway walls with varying curvature. Then, we cultured airway smooth muscle cells (ASMCs) on these strips and investigated the cells' motility and mechanical properties using time-lapse imaging microscopy and optical magnetic twisting cytometry (OMTC). We found that both motility and mechanical properties of the ASMCs were influenced by the curvature. In particular, when the curvature increased from 0 to 1/150 μm(-1), the velocity of cell migration first decreased (0-1/750 μm(-1)), and then increased (1/750-1/150 μm(-1)). In contrast, the cell stiffness increased and then decreased. Thus, at the intermediate curvature (1/750 μm(-1)) the ASMCs were the least motile, but most stiff. The contractility instead decreased consistently as the curvature increased. The level of F-actin, and vinculin expression within the ASMCs appeared to correlate with the contractility and motility, respectively, in relation to the curvature. These results may provide valuable insights to understanding the heterogeneity of airway constrictions in asthma as well as the developing and functioning of other tubular organs and tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimin Xu
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, and Bioengineering College, Chongqing University, 174 Shapingzhengjie Street, Chongqing 400044, China
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10
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Chen C, Krishnan R, Zhou E, Ramachandran A, Tambe D, Rajendran K, Adam RM, Deng L, Fredberg JJ. Fluidization and resolidification of the human bladder smooth muscle cell in response to transient stretch. PLoS One 2010; 5:e12035. [PMID: 20700509 PMCID: PMC2917357 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2010] [Accepted: 07/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cells resident in certain hollow organs are subjected routinely to large transient stretches, including every adherent cell resident in lungs, heart, great vessels, gut, and bladder. We have shown recently that in response to a transient stretch the adherent eukaryotic cell promptly fluidizes and then gradually resolidifies, but mechanism is not yet understood. Principal Findings In the isolated human bladder smooth muscle cell, here we applied a 10% transient stretch while measuring cell traction forces, elastic modulus, F-actin imaging and the F-actin/G-actin ratio. Immediately after a transient stretch, F-actin levels and cell stiffness were lower by about 50%, and traction forces were lower by about 70%, both indicative of prompt fluidization. Within 5min, F-actin levels recovered completely, cell stiffness recovered by about 90%, and traction forces recovered by about 60%, all indicative of resolidification. The extent of the fluidization response was uninfluenced by a variety of signaling inhibitors, and, surprisingly, was localized to the unstretch phase of the stretch-unstretch maneuver in a manner suggestive of cytoskeletal catch bonds. When we applied an “unstretch-restretch” (transient compression), rather than a “stretch-unstretch” (transient stretch), the cell did not fluidize and the actin network did not depolymerize. Conclusions Taken together, these results implicate extremely rapid actin disassembly in the fluidization response, and slow actin reassembly in the resolidification response. In the bladder smooth muscle cell, the fluidization response to transient stretch occurs not through signaling pathways, but rather through release of increased tensile forces that drive acute disassociation of actin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Chen
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Ramaswamy Krishnan
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Enhua Zhou
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Aruna Ramachandran
- Urological Diseases Research Center, Department of Urology, Children's Hospital Boston and Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Dhananjay Tambe
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Kavitha Rajendran
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Rosalyn M. Adam
- Urological Diseases Research Center, Department of Urology, Children's Hospital Boston and Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Linhong Deng
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Jeffrey J. Fredberg
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
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Abstract
Cell mechanical properties on a whole cell basis have been widely studied, whereas local intracellular variations have been less well characterized and are poorly understood. To fill this gap, here we provide detailed intracellular maps of regional cytoskeleton (CSK) stiffness, loss tangent, and rate of structural rearrangements, as well as their relationships to the underlying regional F-actin density and the local cytoskeletal prestress. In the human airway smooth muscle cell, we used micropatterning to minimize geometric variation. We measured the local cell stiffness and loss tangent with optical magnetic twisting cytometry and the local rate of CSK remodeling with spontaneous displacements of a CSK-bound bead. We also measured traction distributions with traction microscopy and cell geometry with atomic force microscopy. On the basis of these experimental observations, we used finite element methods to map for the first time the regional distribution of intracellular prestress. Compared with the cell center or edges, cell corners were systematically stiffer and more fluidlike and supported higher traction forces, and at the same time had slower remodeling dynamics. Local remodeling dynamics had a close inverse relationship with local cell stiffness. The principal finding, however, is that systematic regional variations of CSK stiffness correlated only poorly with regional F-actin density but strongly and linearly with the regional prestress. Taken together, these findings in the intact cell comprise the most comprehensive characterization to date of regional variations of cytoskeletal mechanical properties and their determinants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan Young Park
- Dept. of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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12
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Kang H, Tambe D, Perlmutter D, Shenoy V, Tang JX. What We Learn from Actin Comet Tails Going Awry. Biophys J 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2009.12.2312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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13
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Krishnan R, Park CY, Lin YC, Mead J, Jaspers RT, Trepat X, Lenormand G, Tambe D, Smolensky AV, Knoll AH, Butler JP, Fredberg JJ. Reinforcement versus fluidization in cytoskeletal mechanoresponsiveness. PLoS One 2009; 4:e5486. [PMID: 19424501 PMCID: PMC2675060 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2009] [Accepted: 04/02/2009] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Every adherent eukaryotic cell exerts appreciable traction forces upon its substrate. Moreover, every resident cell within the heart, great vessels, bladder, gut or lung routinely experiences large periodic stretches. As an acute response to such stretches the cytoskeleton can stiffen, increase traction forces and reinforce, as reported by some, or can soften and fluidize, as reported more recently by our laboratory, but in any given circumstance it remains unknown which response might prevail or why. Using a novel nanotechnology, we show here that in loading conditions expected in most physiological circumstances the localized reinforcement response fails to scale up to the level of homogeneous cell stretch; fluidization trumps reinforcement. Whereas the reinforcement response is known to be mediated by upstream mechanosensing and downstream signaling, results presented here show the fluidization response to be altogether novel: it is a direct physical effect of mechanical force acting upon a structural lattice that is soft and fragile. Cytoskeletal softness and fragility, we argue, is consistent with early evolutionary adaptations of the eukaryotic cell to material properties of a soft inert microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramaswamy Krishnan
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Chan Young Park
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Yu-Chun Lin
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Jere Mead
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Richard T. Jaspers
- Research Institute MOVE, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Xavier Trepat
- Unitat de Biofisica i Bioenginyeria, Universitat de Barcelona – IBEC, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Guillaume Lenormand
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Dhananjay Tambe
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Alexander V. Smolensky
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Andrew H. Knoll
- Botanical Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - James P. Butler
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey J. Fredberg
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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