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Pelenis D, Barauskas D, Dzikaras M, Viržonis D. Four-Channel Ultrasonic Sensor for Bulk Liquid and Biochemical Surface Interrogation. Biosensors (Basel) 2024; 14:66. [PMID: 38391985 PMCID: PMC10887170 DOI: 10.3390/bios14020066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Custom electronics tailored for ultrasonic applications with four ultrasonic transmit-receive channels and a nominal 25 MHz single channel frequency were developed for ultrasound BAW and SAW biosensor uses. The designed integrated microcontroller, supported by Python with a SciPy library, and the developed system measured the time of flight (TOF) and other wave properties to characterize the acoustic properties of a bulk of the liquid in a microchannel or acoustic properties of biological species attached to an analytic surface in real time. The system can utilize both piezoelectric and capacitive micromachined ultrasound transducers. The device demonstrated a linear response to changes in water salinity. This response was primarily attributed to the time-of-flight (TOF) changes related to the varying solution density. Furthermore, real-time DNA oligonucleotide-based interactions between oligonucleotides immobilized on the device's analytical area and oligonucleotides attached to gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) in the solution were demonstrated. The biological interaction led to an exponential decrease in the acoustic interfacial wave propagating across the interface between the solution and the solid surface of the sensor, the TOF signal. This decrease was attributed to the increase in the effective density of the solution in the vicinity of the sensor's analytical area, as Au NPs modified by oligonucleotides were binding to the analytical area. The utilization of Au NPs in oligonucleotide surface binding yields a considerably stronger sensor signal than previously observed in earlier CMUT-based TOF biosensor prototypes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Darius Viržonis
- Panevėžys Faculty of Technology and Business, Kaunas University of Technology, 37164 Panevėžys, Lithuania; (D.P.); (D.B.); (M.D.)
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Dzikaras M, Barauskas D, Pelenis D, Vanagas G, Mikolajūnas M, Shi J, Baltrusaitis J, Viržonis D. Design of Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework-8-Functionalized Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasound Transducer Gravimetric Sensors for Gas and Hydrocarbon Vapor Detection. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:8827. [PMID: 37960526 PMCID: PMC10648066 DOI: 10.3390/s23218827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
A capacitive micromachined ultrasound transducer (CMUT) was engineered and functionalized with zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) dispersed in a photoresist AZ1512HS (AZ) matrix to function as a gravimetric gas sensor. The sensor response was recorded in the presence of nitrogen, argon, carbon dioxide, and methane gases as well as water, acetylene, a propane/butane mixture, n-hexane, gasoline, and diesel vapors. The photoresist matrix alone was found to have a negligible response to all the gases and vapors, except for water vapor. No visible difference in sensor response was detected when switching from nitrogen to methane gas. However, a strong shift in the sensor resonance frequency was observed when exposed to higher hydrocarbons, ranging from 1 kHz for acetylene to 7.5 kHz for gasoline. Even longer-chain hydrocarbons, specifically kerosene and more so diesel, had a significantly reduced sensor frequency shift compared with gasoline. Sensors functionalized with a thin film of AZ+ZIF-8 demonstrated higher sensitivity in their response to a hydrocarbon molecular mass than without functionalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mindaugas Dzikaras
- Panevėžys Faculty of Technology and Business, Kaunas University of Technology, 37164 Panevėžys, Lithuania; (D.B.); (D.P.); (G.V.); (M.M.); (D.V.)
| | - Dovydas Barauskas
- Panevėžys Faculty of Technology and Business, Kaunas University of Technology, 37164 Panevėžys, Lithuania; (D.B.); (D.P.); (G.V.); (M.M.); (D.V.)
| | - Donatas Pelenis
- Panevėžys Faculty of Technology and Business, Kaunas University of Technology, 37164 Panevėžys, Lithuania; (D.B.); (D.P.); (G.V.); (M.M.); (D.V.)
| | - Gailius Vanagas
- Panevėžys Faculty of Technology and Business, Kaunas University of Technology, 37164 Panevėžys, Lithuania; (D.B.); (D.P.); (G.V.); (M.M.); (D.V.)
| | - Marius Mikolajūnas
- Panevėžys Faculty of Technology and Business, Kaunas University of Technology, 37164 Panevėžys, Lithuania; (D.B.); (D.P.); (G.V.); (M.M.); (D.V.)
| | - Jingming Shi
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Lehigh University, B336 Iacocca Hall, 111 Research Drive, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA; (J.S.); (J.B.)
| | - Jonas Baltrusaitis
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Lehigh University, B336 Iacocca Hall, 111 Research Drive, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA; (J.S.); (J.B.)
| | - Darius Viržonis
- Panevėžys Faculty of Technology and Business, Kaunas University of Technology, 37164 Panevėžys, Lithuania; (D.B.); (D.P.); (G.V.); (M.M.); (D.V.)
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Pelenis D, Vanagas G, Barauskas D, Dzikaras M, Mikolajūnas M, Viržonis D. Acoustic Streaming Efficiency in a Microfluidic Biosensor with an Integrated CMUT. Micromachines (Basel) 2023; 14:mi14051012. [PMID: 37241635 DOI: 10.3390/mi14051012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The effect of microchannel height on acoustic streaming velocity and capacitive micromachined ultrasound transducer (CMUT) cell damping was investigated. Microchannels with heights ranging from 0.15 to 1.75 mm were used in experiments, and computational microchannel models with heights varying from 10 to 1800 micrometers were simulated. Both simulated and measured data show local minima and maxima of acoustic streaming efficiency associated with the wavelength of the `bulk acoustic wave excited at 5 MHz frequency. Local minima occur at microchannel heights that are multiples of half the wavelength (150 μm), which are caused by destructive interference between excited and reflected acoustic waves. Therefore, microchannel heights that are not multiples of 150 μm are more favorable for higher acoustic streaming effectiveness since destructive interference decreases the acoustic streaming effectiveness by more than 4 times. On average, the experimental data show slightly higher velocities for smaller microchannels than the simulated data, but the overall observation of higher streaming velocities in larger microchannels is not altered. In additional simulation, at small microchannel heights (10-350 μm), local minima at microchannel heights that are multiples of 150 μm were observed, indicating the interference between excited and reflected waves and causing acoustic damping of comparatively compliant CMUT membranes. Increasing the microchannel height to over 100 μm tends to eliminate the acoustic damping effect as the local minima of the CMUT membrane swing amplitude approach the maximum value of 42 nm, which is the calculated amplitude of the freely swinging membrane under the described conditions. At optimum conditions, an acoustic streaming velocity of over 2 mm/s in a 1.8 mm-high microchannel was achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donatas Pelenis
- Panevėžys Faculty of Technologies and Business, Kaunas University of Technology, 37164 Panevėžys, Lithuania
| | - Gailius Vanagas
- Panevėžys Faculty of Technologies and Business, Kaunas University of Technology, 37164 Panevėžys, Lithuania
| | - Dovydas Barauskas
- Panevėžys Faculty of Technologies and Business, Kaunas University of Technology, 37164 Panevėžys, Lithuania
| | - Mindaugas Dzikaras
- Panevėžys Faculty of Technologies and Business, Kaunas University of Technology, 37164 Panevėžys, Lithuania
| | - Marius Mikolajūnas
- Panevėžys Faculty of Technologies and Business, Kaunas University of Technology, 37164 Panevėžys, Lithuania
| | - Darius Viržonis
- Panevėžys Faculty of Technologies and Business, Kaunas University of Technology, 37164 Panevėžys, Lithuania
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Barauskas D, Dzikaras M, Bieliauskas D, Pelenis D, Vanagas G, Viržonis D. Selective Ultrasonic Gravimetric Sensors Based on Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasound Transducer Structure-A Review. Sensors (Basel) 2020; 20:E3554. [PMID: 32585954 PMCID: PMC7349875 DOI: 10.3390/s20123554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
This review paper discusses the advances of the gravimetric detection devices based on capacitive micromachined ultrasound transducers structure. Principles of gravimetric operation and device modeling are reviewed through the presentation of an analytical, one-dimensional model and finite element modeling. Additionally, the most common fabrication techniques, including sacrificial release and wafer bonding, are discussed for advantages for gravimetric sensing. As functional materials are the most important part of the selective gravimetric sensing, the review of different functional material properties and coating and application methods is necessary. Particularly, absorption and desorption mechanisms of functional materials, like methylated polyethyleneimine, with examples of applications for gas sensing and using immune complexes for specific biomolecules detection are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dovydas Barauskas
- Kaunas University of Technology, Panevėžys Institute of Technologies and Business, LT-37164 Panevėžys, Lithuania; (M.D.); (D.B.); (D.P.); (G.V.)
| | | | | | | | | | - Darius Viržonis
- Kaunas University of Technology, Panevėžys Institute of Technologies and Business, LT-37164 Panevėžys, Lithuania; (M.D.); (D.B.); (D.P.); (G.V.)
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Pelenis D, Barauskas D, Vanagas G, Dzikaras M, Viržonis D. CMUT-based biosensor with convolutional neural network signal processing. Ultrasonics 2019; 99:105956. [PMID: 31288119 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultras.2019.105956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Revised: 06/29/2019] [Accepted: 06/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The improvement of the micromachined ultrasound transducer based (CMUT) biosensor fabrication technology and signal processing, which led to higher signal to noise ratio is reported. The biosensor contains interdigitally arranged CMUT structure with gold-coated analytical area. It is assembled with the plexiglass microchannels. CMUTs were fabricated with the wafer bonding technology for 5 MHz operation in immersion. For signal processing the convolutional neural network (CNN) was developed and trained to classify the sensor data to different propagation delay values. For training of the network 750 thousand signals representing different properties of the bioanalyte and different noise conditions was simulated by the finite time difference domain (FDTD) model. The capability of the CNN algorithm to classify the propagation delay data was compared with the adaptive passband filter signal processing algorithm used in our previous version of the senor. Both sensing channels were run simultaneously with the reference liquids in the microchannel: deionized water switching to 0.9% saline. It was found that CNN channel is capable to improve the signal to noise ratio for this experiment to 75 dB, when the same property for the passband filter channel was only 60 dB. This led to the generalization about the advantage of CNN channel to provide 15 dB less of instrumental noise. Finally, the real-time detection ability of the bovine serum albumin (BSA) deposition on the analytical area of improved sensor was demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donatas Pelenis
- Kaunas University of Technology, Panevėžys Faculty, Panevėžys, LT 37164, Lithuania; Panevėžys Mechatronic Center, Panevėžys, LT 36239, Lithuania.
| | - Dovydas Barauskas
- Kaunas University of Technology, Panevėžys Faculty, Panevėžys, LT 37164, Lithuania
| | - Gailius Vanagas
- Kaunas University of Technology, Panevėžys Faculty, Panevėžys, LT 37164, Lithuania
| | - Mindaugas Dzikaras
- Kaunas University of Technology, Panevėžys Faculty, Panevėžys, LT 37164, Lithuania
| | - Darius Viržonis
- Kaunas University of Technology, Panevėžys Faculty, Panevėžys, LT 37164, Lithuania.
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Barauskas D, Pelenis D, Vanagas G, Viržonis D, Baltrušaitis J. Methylated Poly(ethylene)imine Modified Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasonic Transducer for Measurements of CO 2 and SO 2 in Their Mixtures. Sensors (Basel) 2019; 19:s19143236. [PMID: 31340518 PMCID: PMC6679524 DOI: 10.3390/s19143236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 07/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
A gravimetric gas detection device based on surface functionalized Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasound Transducers (CMUTs) was designed, fabricated and tested for detection of carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) mixtures in nitrogen. The created measurement setup of continuous data collection, integrated with an in-situ Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, allows for better understanding of the mechanisms and molecular interactions with the sensing layer (methylated poly(ethylene)imine) and its need of surface functionalization for multiple gas detection. During experimentation with CO2 gases, weak molecular interactions were observed in spectroscopy data. Linear sensor response to frequency shift was observed with CO2 concentrations ranging from 0.16 vol % to 1 vol %. Moreover, the Raman and FT-IR spectroscopy data showed much stronger SO2 and the polymer interactions, molecules were bound by stronger forces and irreversibly changed the polymer film properties. However, the sensor change in resonance frequency in the tested region of 1 vol % to 5 vol % SO2 showed a linear response. This effect changed not only the device resonance frequency but also affected the magnitude of electroacoustic impedance which was used for differentiating the gas mixture of CO2, SO2, in dry N2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dovydas Barauskas
- Panevėžys faculty of Technologies and Business, Kaunas University of Technology, Nemuno st. 33-218, Panevėžys 37164, Lithuania
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Lehigh University, B336 Iacocca Hall, 111 Research Drive, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA
| | - Donatas Pelenis
- Panevėžys faculty of Technologies and Business, Kaunas University of Technology, Nemuno st. 33-218, Panevėžys 37164, Lithuania
| | - Gailius Vanagas
- Panevėžys faculty of Technologies and Business, Kaunas University of Technology, Nemuno st. 33-218, Panevėžys 37164, Lithuania
| | - Darius Viržonis
- Panevėžys faculty of Technologies and Business, Kaunas University of Technology, Nemuno st. 33-218, Panevėžys 37164, Lithuania
| | - Jonas Baltrušaitis
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Lehigh University, B336 Iacocca Hall, 111 Research Drive, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA.
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Barauskas D, Pelenis D, Virzonis D, Baltrus JP, Baltrusaitis J. Greenhouse Gas Molecule CO2 Detection Using a Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasound Transducer. Anal Chem 2016; 88:6662-5. [PMID: 27321769 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b02085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
We manufactured and tested a capacitive micromachined ultrasound transducer (CMUT)-based sensor for CO2 detection at environmentally relevant concentrations using polyethylenimine as a CO2 binding material. The assembly of a sensing chip was 10 × 20 mm, and up to 5 gases can potentially be detected simultaneously using a masking technique and different sensing materials. The limit of detection was calculated to be 0.033 CO2 vol % while the limit of quantification was calculated to be 0.102%. The sensor exhibited a linear response between 0.06% and 0.30% CO2 while concentrations close to those in flue gas can also be measured using dilution with inert gas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dovydas Barauskas
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Kaunas University of Technology, Panevezys Institute , Daukanto 12, LT-35212 Paneveys, Lithuania.,Laboratory of Micro and Nano Technologies, Panevezys Mechatronics Center , Pilenu 30, LT-36239 Panevezys, Lithuania
| | - Donatas Pelenis
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Kaunas University of Technology, Panevezys Institute , Daukanto 12, LT-35212 Paneveys, Lithuania.,Laboratory of Micro and Nano Technologies, Panevezys Mechatronics Center , Pilenu 30, LT-36239 Panevezys, Lithuania
| | - Darius Virzonis
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Kaunas University of Technology, Panevezys Institute , Daukanto 12, LT-35212 Paneveys, Lithuania.,Laboratory of Micro and Nano Technologies, Panevezys Mechatronics Center , Pilenu 30, LT-36239 Panevezys, Lithuania
| | - John P Baltrus
- National Energy Technology Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy , 626 Cochrans Mill Road, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15236, United States
| | - Jonas Baltrusaitis
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Lehigh University , B336 Iacocca Hall, 111 Research Drive, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 18015, United States
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